
Class. 
Book.. 



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Copyright^ . 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



SELECTION AND 
PREPARATION OF FOOD 

LABORATORY MANUAL 



ISABEL BEVIER, Ph.M. 
ANNA R. VAN METER, M.S. 



Third Edition 




WHITCOMB & BARROWS 
BOSTON, 1915 



^t< 



° « 



COPYRIGHT I907, I9IO, 191 5 

BY 

ISABEL BEVIER and ANNA R. VAN METER 



7 J" 



6 L 



Thomas Todd Company, Printers 
14 Beacon Street, Boston, Massachusetts 



)CIA41?268 



CONTENTS 

FIRST SEMESTER 

PAGE 

Preface 5 

Kitchen and Equipment 7 

Water 13 

Protein Foods 17 

Milk 17 

Cheese 21 

Eggs 22 

Meat 29 

Veal, Pork, Mutton 37 

Poultry 39 

Fish 41 

Shell-fish 43 

Types of Cured Meat and Fish 44 

Gelatin 47 

Fats and Oils 48 

Demonstration 54 

SECOND SEMESTER 

Preservation of Food 55 

Carbohydrates 62 

Sugars 65 

Starches 69 

Cereals 72 

Vegetables 78 

Leavened Preparations 87 

Flour Mixtures 87 

Yeast, Flour, and Bread 96 

Practice Luncheon 101 

Meals 103 



PREFACE 

THIS manual was originally prepared for the students 
of Home Economics in the University of Illinois. 
This revision embodies some of the suggestions gathered 
in the years of experience in using the book in the labora- 
tory. It is hoped that the more logical arrangement and 
the additional material will make the manual useful to a 
larger circle. 

While in some cases the illustrations have been ampli- 
fied, it has been thought to be neither necessary nor desira- 
ble to vary from the general plan of the previous editions, 
which was to limit the dishes suggested under each head 
to a number adequate to emphasize the basis for their 
preparation. This simplicity of plan has been found to be 
of substantial aid in removing some of the prevailing con- 
fusion associated with the study of foods, while at the same 
time it provides for an almost indefinite expansion and 
elaboration in cases where more practice work is desired. 

A scientific study of food requires some knowledge of 
pure science in order to understand the chemical com- 
position of foods and to interpret the principles which 
underlie their selection and preparation. Experience has 
shown that the principles of cooking may be taught by the 
same general methods as are used in teaching the principles 
of chemistry, i. e., by a study of typical compounds. The 
development of this idea suggests a study of a given food 
until the student has acquired some familiarity with that 
type. Thus eggs afford a comparatively pure form of pro- 
5 



6 Preparation of Food 

tein with which to determine some of the characteristics 
of protein foods. Cheese and meat offer further oppor- 
tunities for such study. In this as in all educative processes, 
orderly development has its place. 

Milk is used early in the experimental work because it 
is a familiar food and also because it may be easily sepa- 
rated into its constituents, thus affording a concrete illus- 
tration of the different classes of foods. Moreover, this 
procedure offers an easy introduction to the composition of 
the human body and the functions of different classes of 
foods. The plan suggested for studying a food is to con- 
sider its general aspects in a lecture, its physical and chem- 
ical properties in the laboratory, and finally to show how 
these influence the preparation of a particular dish. For 
instance, having studied eggs and milk, a custard is a good 
example of a combination of these materials, and the low 
temperature used in making it is a result of what has been 
learned concerning the action of heat on protein. 

The selection of the dishes to be prepared is deter- 
mined by the principles to be illustrated. For example, 
water as a carrier of flavor is illustrated either by the mak- 
ing of tea or of lemon ice. In addition, the principle of 
extraction is shown by the former and the physics of 
freezing mixtures by the latter. 

Quality of food materials, proper combinations, care in 
manipulation, attractiveness of service, normal food re- 
quirements, and cost should be constantly considered in 
connection with the work as outlined. 

I. B. 

August -, 1915. A. R. V. 



FIRST SEMESTER 

PRINCIPLES OF THE SELECTION AND 
PREPARATION OF FOOD 

Experiment i. The Kitchen. 

Draw a plan of the kitchen to scale, locating doors, 
windows, and furniture. Observe : 

(a) The kinds of finish used upon the walls, wood- 

work, floor, table tops, and sinks. 

(b) The means of ventilation. 

(c) The arrangement of the furniture. Provision for 

storage and disposal of waste. 

Experiment 2. Equipment — General. 

(a) List the various stoves and burners. 

(b) Draw a cross section of: 

( 1 ) The coal range. 

(2) The gas range. 

(c) Measure the height of tables, desks, and sinks. 

Experiment 3. Equipment — Individual. 

List the equipment of an individual desk. Make a 
drawing showing : 

(a) The size of the working space. 

(b) The size of the drawers. 

(c) The arrangement of equipment. 

(d) The kind of burner. 

7 



8 Preparation of Food 

Experiment 4. Fireless Cooker and Refrigerator. 

Draw a cross section of a fireless cooker and of the 
refrigerator. In the latter indicate the direction of the 
currents of air in the air passages, the position of the drain 
pipe and the trap. 

What principles of physics are illustrated by the fireless 
cooker, the refrigerator, and the thermos bottle? 

Experiment 5. Use of Coal and Wood. 

Open the dampers of the range. Arrange the kindling 
in the fire box so as to permit the free passage of air 
through it, using the minimum amount necessary to ignite 
the larger pieces of fuel placed on top. After satisfactory 
combustion has been established arrange the dampers : 

(a) To heat the oven. 

(b) To hold the fire. 

( c) To use the open broiler. 

Experiment 6. Use of Gas. 

Light the various burners of the gas range. Adjust the 
flame: 

(a) To full capacity. 

(b) To lowest possible point. 

(c) To point of maximum efficiency. 
Explain the structure and colors of a flame. 
Compare the "mixer" of the gas burner with the 

damper of the coal range. 

Experiment 7. Cost of Gas. 

Record the reading of the gas meter on the blanks pro- 
vided, using the lower space. Make another reading at the 



Laboratory Manual Q 

end of the month, and compute the gas bill at current 
rates. 

Note. — See instructions on back of blank. 

Experiment 8. Consumption of Gas. 

From the time required to burn two cubic feet of gas 
under full pressure, compute the number of feet consumed 
per hour by each size of burner. Tabulate cost per hour at 
current rate. 

Experiment 9. Economy of Gas. 

Compare the amount of gas consumed by a medium- 
sized gas burner when regulated to maintain the smallest 
possible show of ebullition in from two to three quarts of 
water with the amount consumed by the same burner when 
running at full capacity. 

What is the difference in cost per hour ? 

Experiment 10. Electricity. 

Use an electric cooking appliance. Compare with gas 
as to convenience, efficiency, and cost at local rates. 

1. What are the essentials of a good fuel ? 

2. Compare wood, coal, charcoal, gas, gasoline, kero- 
sene, acetylene, and alcohol in reference to these essentials. 

3. What is the unit of measure for each fuel ? 

4. Develop a score card for judging a fuel. 

Experiment 11. Measures. 
Determine the : 

1. Number of tsp of water in tbsp. 
Number of tbsp of water in 1 cup. 
Number of cups of water in 1 quart. 



io Preparation of Food 

2. Number of tsp of flour in tbsp. 
Number of tbsp of flour in i cup. 
Number of cups of flour in i quart. 
(Flour to be sifted once before using.) 

Experiment 12. Weights. 

1. Weight by metric system of : 

(a) 1 c flour (c) 1 c water 

(b) 1 c sugar (d) 1 c lard 

2. Repeat part 1, using avoirdupois. 

From above data compute number of cups of flour in 
1 pound. Of sugar. Of lard. Using standard measures, 
what variation may occur in the quantity of material 
actually taken ? 

Experiment 13. Temperatures. 

Determine the range of temperature to which food is 
subjected as indicated by the following scheme. Tabulate 
the results. 



Laboratory Manual 



II 



Temperature of 



Ice and salt 

Cracked ice 

Refrigerator 

Water from cold faucet 

Room 

Blood heat or lukewarm 

(Inclose bulb of thermometer in palm of hand) 
Water heated until bubbles form over bottom of 

pan 

Fireless cooker (2 hours after being started) . . 

Double boiler 

Steamer 

Boiling water 

Boiling sirup : 

(a) Soft ball stage 

(b) When color changes 

Fat in which bread turns golden brown : 

(a) In 1 minute 

(b) In 40 seconds 

Oven in which bread toasts golden brown • 

(a) In 30 minutes 

(b) In 5 minutes 

(c) In 2 minutes 




Experiment 14. Cooking Temperatures. 

Arrange utensils and materials for the application of 
heat as follows : 

1. Saucepan containing water. 

2. Double boiler with water in both parts. 

3. Covered steamer over saucepan of water. 

4. Saucepan containing sirup made of equal quantities 
of sugar and water. 

5. Saucepan containing fat. 

6. Small oven. 

7. Fit up a thermos bottle or small fireless cooker with 
a thermometer, and fill with boiling water. 



12 Preparation of Food 

Heat each utensil (except the thermos bottle) 20 to 30 
minutes, noting the following points : 

In which cases is there a continuous rise in temper- 
ature ? 

In which does the temperature become constant at a 
certain point ? 

Is the constant temperature the same in all cases where 
it occurs ? 

Is there a decline in temperature in any instance ? 

What complications may follow prolonged application 
of heat? 

Using the boiling point of water as a dividing line, 
classify the temperatures observed into high and low. 

Experiment 15. Freezing Mixtures. 

Stand a tin measuring cup partly filled with water in 
a bowl and surround with cracked ice. 

At what point does the temperature of the water 
become stationary ? 

Arrange a similar apparatus, but mix the ice with salt 
(1 tbsp salt to 1 c ice). 

At what points do the results in the two cases differ ? 

Compare the above freezing mixture with one made 
up of 1 part of salt to 4 parts of ice. 

Is there a difference in the final temperature obtained ? 

Is there a difference in the rate at which the tem- 
perature falls ? 



Laboratory Manual 13 



WATER 
References: 

Woodman and Norton. Air, Water, and Food. 

Sherman. Food Products. 

Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. 

Hutchison. Food and Dietetics. 

Farmers' Bulletin 234. Tea Cultivation and Manu- 
facture in the United States. 

Bulletin 28. Office of Experiment Stations. Chemical 
Composition of American Food Materials. 

Experiment 16. Dish Washing. 

1. Scrape all crumbs, scraps, etc., from the dishes into 
the waste jar; greasy dishes may be wiped out with soft 
paper. Dishes with dough, milk, or egg adhering should 
be put to soak in cold water. 

2. Pile dishes of a kind together. 

3. Provide plenty of good, soapy water and hot rinse 
water. 

4. Wash glassware first, china next, then silver, and 
lastly cooking utensils. After washing, the dishes should 
be arranged in the rinsing pan, the hot water poured over 
them carefully, then they may be wiped or removed to the 
drainer and allowed to dry without wiping. 

Be sure that all are perfectly dry before putting away. 

5. Wash table top thoroughly, using scouring mate- 
rial if necessary. Wipe dry. 

6. Wash and rinse both dish cloths and dish towels 
and hang straight to dry. 



14 Preparation of Food 

Experiment 17. Freshening of Vegetables. 

Take wilted lettuce, celery, or other salad plants. 
Wash, place in cold water, cut off the dried part of the 
stems under the water, let remainder stand until crisp. 
Explain. 

Experiment 18. Freshening of Dried Fruit. 

Wash dried fruit carefully. Cover with fresh water 
and let stand in a cool place 12 hours. Put fruit with water 
in which it was soaked into a double boiler and cook until 
soft, adding a little sugar if desired. Serve cold. 

Apply above principle to the preparation of old potatoes 
and navy beans. 

Water as a Carrier of Flavor 

Experiment 19. 

(a) Lemonade: 

1 measure lemon juice 
1 J measures sugar 
8 measures water 
Heat a part of the water and pour over the sugar. Add 
lemon juice and remainder of water. Chill. 

(b) Lemon ice: 

Dissolve 2 measures of sugar in 4 measures of water 
and boil a few minutes. Remove from the fire ; add 
1 measure of lemon juice strained. Cool, pour into a 
suitable vessel, and surround with ice and salt. Stir the 
lemon mixture while freezing. 

Note the temperature : 

( 1 ) Of lemon mixture at beginning of the process. 



Laboratory Manual 15 

(2) Of lemon ice and of the freezing mixture when 
the process is finished. 

Other ices may be made by freezing the properly 
sweetened juice from cooked fruits. 

Experiment 20. Coffee. 

(a) Made with cold water. 

Place 2 tbsp of ground coffee in the pot. If desired, 
\ tsp of beaten egg may be added. Pour over this 1 c of 
cold water. Bring slowly to the boiling point. Let boil 
up once. Clear the spout by pouring 1 tbsp of cold water 
through it. Let stand for about 5 minutes where it will 
keep hot while settling. 

(b) Made with boiling water. 

Repeat the process in (a), except that the water added 
should be boiling. 

(c) Filtered. 

Place 2 tbsp of finely ground coffee into a muslin sack 
or strainer in the coffee pot. Pour 1 c boiling water slowly 
over the coffee. When this has filtered through, heat and 
pour over again. The coffee pot must be kept hot, but 
filtered coffee should not be boiled. 

If a percolator is used the process should be watched, 
and when the coffee is strong enough the flame should be 
so regulated that the coffee is kept hot but not boiling. 

(d) Prepare coffee by any one of the methods given 
above, but let boil 10 minutes. 

Compare results and explain differences. 



1 6 Preparation of Food 

Experiment 21. Tea. 

Arrange so that the following samples shall be ready 
at the same time : 

(a) Green tea. 

In each of three hot teapots place 1 tsp of green tea, 
adding 1 c freshly boiled water. 

Steep (1)5 minutes. 

Steep (2) 20 minutes. 

Boil (3) 3 minutes. 

(&) Black tea. 

Repeat (a), using black tea. 

(c) Place 1 J tsp of green and black tea each in sepa- 
rate strainers. Pour 1 c boiling water through. Observe 
differences in results. 

Compare all these samples as to color, flavor, and 
strength. 

To a small portion of each in a test tube add a few 
drops of a 10 per cent solution of lead acetate. What is 
the precipitate ? Is the amount of the precipitate the same 
in each case? 

What conclusions may be drawn from the precipitate 
in regard to the composition of the tea and the method of 
making ? 

Which tea and which method of preparation are to be 
preferred for table use? For afternoon tea? For iced tea? 



Laboratory Manual iy 

PROTEIN FOODS 

MILK 
References: 

Sherman. Food Products. 

Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. 

Rosenau. The Milk Question. 

Van Slyke. Modern Method of Testing Milk and Milk 

Products. 
Buchanan. Household Bacteriology. 
Farmers' Bulletin 348. Bacteria in Milk. 
Farmers' Bulletin 363. Use of Milk as Food. 
Farmers' Bulletin 413. Care of Milk and Its Use in the 

Home. 
Farmers' Bulletin 487. Cheese and Its Economical Use 

in the Diet. 
Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular 197. Directions 

for the Home Pasteurization of Milk. 
Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular 171. Fermented 

Milks. 

Experiment 22. Specific Gravity of Milk. 

Weigh 1 c of water carefully to tenths of a gram. 
Using the same cup for measuring, weigh also 1 c of milk. 
Compute the specific gravity of the milk, taking the weight 
of the water as unity. 

What conditions may affect the specific gravity of 
milk? 



18 Preparation of Food 

Experiment 23. Specific Gravity of Cream. 
Repeat Experiment 22. 
What conditions may affect the specific gravity of 



Experiment 24. Separation of Fat. Cream. 

Fill a 100 c.c. graduated cylinder with fresh milk. Let 
stand 12 hours. Compute the percentage of cream in the 
sample. Observe the relative amount of cream in a bottle 
of milk as purchased. 

What is the principle upon which a cream separator 
operates ? 

Experiment 25. Separation of Fat. Butter. 

Beat 1 pint "ripened" cream with a fork or egg beater 
until the fat separates out in lumps. Collect these into a 
mass. Remove to cold water and wash free from milk. 
Drain. Add 1 tbsp of salt, and cool. 

Record cost of butter obtained. 

How does the composition of butter differ from that of 
cream ? What is the composition of buttermilk ? Its uses ? 

Experiment 26. Whipped Cream. 

(a) Chill 1 c of thick cream and whip until stiff. 

(b) Warm another portion and beat as above. 
Explain the difference in results in (a) and (b). 
What is whipped cream ? 

(c) Mousse. 

To the product from (a) add 2 tbsp of sugar and § tsp 
of flavoring-. Freeze. 



Laboratory Manual 19 

Why is a larger proportion of flavoring added to mix- 
tures to be frozen ? 

Note proportions used in the freezing mixture, method 
of packing, serving, etc. 

Experiment 27. Composition of Milk. 

Carefully remove and save the cream from the sample 
of milk furnished. Warm the skimmed milk to about 
60 ° C. Pour into a small bottle, and add dilute acetic acid 
or vinegar, drop by drop, with shaking until the precipi- 
tate separates out well. Allow to stand until the precipitate 
settles, then filter. Boil the filtrate. What is the precipi- 
tate which forms in it on boiling? Filter. What does the 
filtrate contain ? 

Evaporate the filtrate to dryness. What is the product ? 

Heat a small quantity of milk in an evaporating dish 
until reduced to ash. What constituents of the sample 
remain ? 

Classify the various products obtained in this experi- 
ment under the heads of the five food principles : Water, 
protein, fat, carbohydrate, mineral matter. What is the 
percentage composition of milk? 

Experiment 28. Pasteurization of Milk. 

Nearly fill a clean bottle with fresh milk. Stopper with 
a sterilized cork or with a carefully rolled plug of sterilized 
cotton wool. Place the bottle in a vessel of cold water, 
taking care that the water does not reach the mouth of the 
bottle. Heat slowly until the water reaches a temperature 
of 70 C. Remove the vessel from the fire, but keep closely 



20 Preparation of Food 

covered for 30 minutes. Then remove the bottle from the 
water and cool quickly. 

How does this process differ from sterilization of milk? 

What effect does pasteurization have upon the keeping 
qualities and digestibility of milk? 

Experiment 29. Thickened Milk. 

(a) Clabbered Milk. 

Place a cup of fresh milk in a warm place and let stand 
until it becomes thick (24 to 48 hours). 

(&) Clotted Milk. 

To a cup of fresh milk (lukewarm) add J of a rennet 
tablet which has been pulverized and dissolved in 1 tsp 
water. Let stand in a warm place until it thickens (30 to 
60 minutes). 

Test each sample with litmus paper. 

Are (a) and (b) similar in appearance? 

Are the changes in each the same ? 

Are they due to the same cause ? 

With a knife cut through the curd in each cup, dividing 
it into J inch squares. 

Which sample shows the firmer curd on standing? 

Heat sample (a) to 70 ° C. for 10 minutes, and com- 
pare with (b). 

Boil a portion of each. 

What is the effect of high temperature upon the pro- 
teins of milk? 

Drain the remainder of each sample through cheese- 
cloth. 

Compare as to texture and flavor. Classify the two 
cheeses produced. 



Laboratory Manual 21 

(c) Heat J c of milk to boiling. Add -J rennet tablet 
prepared as above. Pour into a dish and let stand until 
cold. Account for the negative result. What is rennin? 

Experiment 30. Junket. 

Prepare individual junkets, using the proportions of 
1 tsp sugar, J tsp flavoring to 1 c milk. 

Experiment 31. Cottage Cheese. 

Prepare cottage cheese from thick sour milk as indi- 
cated in Experiment 29. 

How large a factor is temperature in the success of 
this preparation ? 

Experiment 32. Commercial Cheese. 
Observe samples of commercial cheese. 
Suggest a basis for classification of varieties of cheese. 
What are the chief food constituents of cheese ? 
What is its percentage composition ? 

Experiment 33. Effect of Heat upon Cheese. 

(a) Melt a small piece of cheese in a hot frying pan. 
Cool and note results. 

(b) Melt a similar piece, using a low heat. Compare 
with (a). 

What constituent of cheese is toughened by high heat? 

Experiment 34. Cheese Wafers. 

Heat wafers in the oven until they are crisp. Sprinkle 
grated cheese thinly over them, season with salt and 
paprika. Return to the oven until the cheese is melted. 



22 Preparation of Food 

Experiment 35. Toasted Cheese Sandwiches. 

Make sandwiches of thin slices of buttered bread and 
grated cheese, seasoned with salt and paprika. Toast to 
a golden brown. Serve hot. 

EGGS 
References: 

Sherman. Food Products. 

Farmers' Bulletin 128. Eggs and Their Uses as Food. 

Langworthy Charts. Eggs and Cheese. Composition 

of Food Materials. U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

General Observations 
Note relative size, color and appearance of shell. 

Experiment 36. Test for Freshness. 

Test eggs by placing in a 10 per cent salt solution. 
What relation can you suggest as existing between the 
freshness of an egg and its specific gravity ? 

Note appearance of eggs when held in strong light. 
What may dark appearance indicate? Does the appear- 
ance of the shell afford any indication as to the freshness 
of the egg? 

Experiment 37. Shell. 

Examine inside of shell of an egg which has been 
boiled in a solution of cochineal. What property of the 
shell does this show? What problem does this present in 
the keeping of eggs ? 

What is the principle which underlies the methods 
used for the preservation of eggs ? 



Laboratory Manual 23 

Experiment 38. Inner Structure of Egg. 
Break an egg and observe : 

1. Skin. 

2. Position of white and yolk. 

3. Location and purpose of chalaza. 

4. Color, texture, and consistency of white and yolk. 

Experiment 39. Number and Weight of Eggs. 
Weigh a dozen eggs. 

(a) Of small size. 

(b) Of large size. 

Calculate difference in cost per pound at the rate of 
30 cents per dozen. 

Experiment 40. Number and Bulk of Eggs. 

Break four small eggs and four large eggs into sepa- 
rate measures. 

Observe difference in bulk. 

Would this difference influence in a recipe ? 

Experiment 41. Composition of White and Yolk. 

(a) Beat a whole egg thoroughly. 

(b) Separate the white and yolk of an egg and beat 
each thoroughly. 

(c) Add about 5 grams of melted butter (a scant tsp) 
to the white of an egg. Beat as before. 

Compare all these results and explain differences. 

Experiment 42. Effect of Heat upon White and Yolk 
of an Egg. 
Place 1 tsp of white of egg in a test tube. In a second 



24 Preparation of Food 

test tube place the same quantity of yolk of egg. Suspend 
the tubes in cold water, bringing the surface of the egg 
in the tubes a little below the level of the surface of the 
water. Heat the water carefully, noting: 

i. Temperature at which coagulation is first apparent. 

2. Temperature at which whole mass is coagulated. 

3. Consistency of the coagulated white at this tem- 
perature. 

4. Consistency of each when water reaches the boiling 
point. 

Experiment 43. Soft Cooked Eggs. 

(a) Place 3 eggs at room temperature in 3 pints of 
boiling water. Cover closely to retain heat. Remove one 
egg in 5 minutes, another in 7, and the third in 10, noting 
temperature of water each time. 

(b) Repeat (a), using 1 pint of boiling water. 

(c) Place 1 egg in 1 pint of cold water. Bring water 
to boiling point quickly. Remove egg. 

(d) Place 1 egg in boiling water. Boil for 3 minutes. 
Remove egg. 

Compare all these results, and indicate the factors to 
be considered in the preparation of soft cooked eggs. 

Experiment 44. Poached Eggs. 

Place 1 c of water in small frying pan. Bring to boil, 
add i tsp salt. Break an egg into a saucer and carefully 
slip it into a buttered muffin ring placed in the bottom of 
the frying pan. The water should cover the egg. Place 
the pan where the water will keep hot without boiling, 



Laboratory Manual 25 

let stand until a white film has formed over the top of 
the egg and the white is firm (about 6 minutes). With a 
skimmer remove the egg and muffin ring to a piece of 
buttered toast and carefully lift off the ring. Season with 
butter, salt, and pepper. 

What is the objection to the device known as an egg 
poacher ? 

Experiment 45. Hard Cooked Eggs. 

(a) Place 1 egg in water at 85 to 90 C. Maintain 
this temperature for 45 minutes to 1 hour. Remove egg. 

(b) Place 1 egg in boiling water and boil for 20 
minutes. Remove. Compare result with (a). 

Experiment 46. Scrambled Eggs. 

Break eggs into a dish, season with salt and pepper. 
Add 1 tbsp of water or milk for each egg used. Turn 
into a hot, buttered frying pan. Lift and stir the mixture 
until it reaches a creamy consistency. Serve immediately. 

Experiment 47. Omelets. 

(a) Foamy Omelet. 

1 egg 1 tbsp water 

J tsp salt 1 tsp butter 

Pepper 

Separate white and yolk of egg. Add salt to each and 

pepper to yolk. Beat yolk until thick. Add water and 

mix well. Beat white until stiff. Fold the yolk into the 

white. Place the butter in hot pan. Add the egg and cook 

at a low temperature. Place in hot oven to dry the top. 

Fold and turn onto hot platter. 



26 Preparation of Food 

What property of protein is illustrated in this prepa- 
ration? What is the effect of the special manipulation? 
W^ould a preparation of yolks of eggs alone be light? 

(b) French Omelet. 

Repeat process in (a) except the separation of white 
and yolk. Serve immediately. 

Experiment 48. Cheese Souffle (Individual). 

£ tbsp butter 1 tbsp finely divided 

2 tsp flour cheese 

i c milk J egg 

A few grains salt Paprika 

Melt butter, add flour, and when well mixed add grad- 
ually milk. Stir until mixture boils. Add salt, paprika, 
and cheese, remove from fire, add well-beaten yolks of 
eggs, and stir until smooth. Cool the mixture, then fold 
in the whites of eggs beaten until stiff. Pour into a 
buttered dish and bake 20 minutes. At what temperature ? 

Experiment 49. Sponge Cake (Individual). 
1 egg i c sugar 

J c flour -| tbsp lemon juice 

A few grains of salt 
Beat the white of egg to a stiff froth. Add the sugar, 
lemon juice, salt, and well-beaten yolk. Fold in the flour 
lightly. Bake in an ungreased pan. 

What should be the temperature of the oven? Why 
should this mixture be cooked at a higher temperature 
than that used in baking the souffle ? 



Laboratory Manual 2J 

Experiment 50. Custards {Individual), 

(a) Soft Custard. 

-1 egg i c milk 

1 tbsp sugar Flavoring 

Salt 
Stir egg and sugar together until blended. Heat the 
milk and add to the egg and sugar gradually until evenly 
mixed. Stir constantly. Cook until the custard coats the 
spoon. 

In what sort of vessel should the milk be heated and 
the cooking of the custard accomplished? At what tem- 
perature should eggs and milk be cooked ? Why ? 

(b) Baked Custard. 

First of the process same as in (a). After adding hot 
milk pour into custard cups. Bake in oven until firm. 
How shall proper temperature be secured ? 

(c) Prepare mixture as in (a), but boil. Explain 
result. 

Experiment 51. Welsh Rarebit. 

2 tbsp cheese i tsp butter 

1 tbsp cream A pinch of soda 

1 tsp beaten egg Salt and pepper 

Melt the butter in double boiler, add the finely divided 

cheese, soda, salt, pepper, and finally the egg diluted with 

the cream. Stir all well until smooth and creamy. Serve 

on bread lightly buttered or on toast. 

Experiment 52. French Rarebit (Group). 

Arrange layers of cubes of buttered bread in a baking 



28 Preparation of Food 

dish. Sprinkle thickly with finely divided cheese, alter- 
nating bread and cheese until dish is full, having a layer 
of bread on the top. Cover with a mixture made in the 
proportion of I egg to i c milk. Season with salt and 
paprika. Bake at the temperature used for custard until 
the top is brown. Serve hot. 

Experiment 53. Chocolate. 

1^ squares unsweet- 3 c milk 

ened chocolate 1 c boiling water 

3 tbsp sugar \ tsp salt 

Melt chocolate in double boiler, add salt, sugar, and 
boiling water gradually. When smooth, boil 1 minute over 
direct flame. Add scalded milk, keep hot until wanted. 
Beat up well immediately before serving. 

Using cocoa instead of chocolate, compare as to flavor 
and cost. 

Food Equivalents 

Using data given in : 

Bulletin 28, Office of Experiment Stations. Chem- 
ical Composition of American Food Materials. 
Sherman. Food and Nutrition. 
Langworthy. Charts. 

1. Weigh out a sufficient quantity of cheese to equal 
a pint of milk in total nutrients ; in calorific value. 

2. Determine the number of eggs required to equal a 
pint of milk in total nutrients ; in calorific value. 

3. Compare the cost of total nutrients and of calories 
as obtained from these three food materials. 



Laboratory Manual 29 

MEAT 
References: 

Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 28. Chemical 
Composition of American Food Materials. 

Sherman. Food Products. 

Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. 

Hutchison. Food and Dietetics. 

Mitchell. Flesh Foods. 

Leach. Food Inspection and Analysis. 

Ostertag. Handbook of Meat Inspection. 

Melvin. Regulations Governing Meat Inspection. 
Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Circular 211. 

Sprague and Grindley. The University of Illinois Stud- 
ies, Vol. II, No. 4. A Precise Method of Roasting 
Beef. 

Langworthy and Hunt. Mutton and Its Value in the 
Diet. Farmers' Bulletin 526. 

Hall and Emmett. Market Classes and Grades of Meat. 
Illinois Experiment Station, Bulletin 147. 

Hall and Emmett. Relative Economy, Composition, 
and Nutritive Value of the Various Cuts of Meat. 
Illinois Experiment Station, Bulletin 158. 

Cook. Bouillon Cubes. U. S. Department of Agricul- 
ture, Bulletin No. 27. 

Farmers' Bulletin 34. Meats : Composition and Cooking. 

Farmers' Bulletin 85. (Revised) Fish as Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin 391. Economical Use of Meat in the 
Home. 

Langworthy Charts. U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



30 Preparation of Food 

General Observations 

i. Make outline drawings of the carcass of beef, pork, 
and mutton, indicating the main divisions used in cutting. 
Fill in this outline with subdivisions as the work proceeds. 

2. Observe the parts of the different cuts of meat, 
noting characteristic shape of piece, size and shape of bone, 
distribution of fat and lean, color, texture, and odor. 

3. Observe structure of lean meat as shown in an 
uncooked portion and in boiled meat. Make drawings of 
a longitudinal and cross-section of muscle. 

4. Make drawings of cross-section and of longitudinal 
section of muscle as seen under the microscope (Stained 
section). 

5. Observe structure of fatty tissue. 

Experiment 54. Structure of Lean Meat. 

1. Take a piece of meat cut from a leg of beef. 

(a) Reserve one-third. 

(b) With a dull knife scrape out the soft part from 
the remainder, shaping it into a cake. 

(c) Make a similar cake of the fibrous part remaining. 

(d) Cook the three samples in a hot frying pan, turn- 
ing them frequently to prevent burning. 

Compare the three and explain differences. 
Compare with a piece of similar meat which has been 
cooked in water until tender. 

2. Repeat processes outlined in (1), but using meat 
cut from the tenderloin. 

What causes toughness in meat ? 



Laboratory Manual 31 

Experiment 55. Composition of Meat. 

1. Cook a piece of beef containing a large amount of 
connective tissue in sufficient water to cover. When the 
meat begins to fall apart remove from the water and cool. 

What constituent of the meat has partially or wholly 
disappeared? Cool the broth and place it near ice until 
it is thoroughly chilled. Explain its consistency. What 
are the small particles seen in it ? 

2. Repeat process in (1), using a piece of beef con- 
taining a relatively small amount of connective tissue. 

Compare (1) and (2), noting appearance of the cooked 
meat and consistency of the cold broth. Note the taste of 
both. Account for the difference in these broths. Do they 
differ in nutritive value ? 

Experiment 56. Flavor of Meat. 

Take 40 grams of finely minced lean beef. 

1. Reserve 5 grams for use in (4). 

2. Stir the remainder up well for several minutes with 
J c of cold water. Filter through cheesecloth. Repeat 
this process until the meat has lost most of its color. 
Reserve this filtrate (a). Reserve the extracted meat 
for (4). 

3. Boil filtrate (a). Filter through filter paper. Wash 
the precipitate well, discarding the wash water. Reserve 
nitrate (b) and precipitate for comparison later. 

4. Pan broil (a) the fresh meat reserved in (1); 
(b) the extracted meat from (2). Compare as to flavor. 

(c) Taste the washed precipitate obtained in (3). 

(d) Taste the nitrate obtained in (3). 



2,2, Preparation of Food 

Compare the above as to odor and taste. 
Why are the extractives of meat important? 
What can you say as to the nutritive value of the 
extracted meat in (2) ? 

Would the filtrate in (3) gelatinize on cooling? 
What is the value of flavor in food ? 

Experiment 57. Effect of Heat on Meat. 

Extract 25 grams of finely minced lean beef with 
J c of cold water. Strain through cheesecloth. Add a 
second portion of water and repeat the treatment until 
the meat has lost its red color. Heat the filtrate carefully, 
noting the temperature : 

(a) At which the small white flakes begin to appear. 

(b) At which a heavy precipitate forms. 

(c) At which the red color disappears. 

(d) At which the solution clears. 

What deductions can be drawn from these experi- 
ments as to the changes which have taken place in rare 
cooked beef? 

Is rare cooked beef a safe food? Why? 

What caused the solution to clear ? 

Experiment 58. Methods of Cooking Meat. 

(a) 1. Place 3 or 4 ounces of lean beef in the top of 
the double boiler in sufficient cold water to cover it. Place 
over cold water and heat, cooking 30 minutes from the 
time the water boils in the lower part of the boiler. 

2. Duplicate the above arrangement, but have the 
water boiling when the meat is added. See to it that every 



Laboratory Manual 33 

part of the surface of the meat is covered instantly by the 
water ; cook for 30 minutes. 

3. Remove the pieces of meat, and pour the broths 
into suitable dishes for comparison. Is there a marked 
difference between the two? Explain. Is there a differ- 
ence in the flavor of the two pieces of meat? Compare 
the original weight and compute percentage of loss. What 
are some of the constituents lost by cooking meat accord- 
ing to each of these methods ? 

(b) 1. Sear a small piece of lean beef quickly on all 
sides in a hot frying pan. Cook 3 minutes. 

2. Place a similar piece in a cold frying pan and heat 
slowly for 5 minutes without turning, then turn and finish 
the cooking. Remove the meat and add \ c of water to 
each pan. Heat the water, stirring well until all the 
dried juices adhering to the pans are taken up by the water. 
Compare the washings from the two pans. What are the 
objections to the last method ? 

What constituents may be lost in part by even the most 
careful pan broiling? Account for the difference in flavor 
between meat which has been cooked in water and that 
which has been broiled. 

Experiment 59. Preparation of Tender Meat (Beef). 

Explain use of terms tender and tough as applied to 
meat. What are the objects in cooking tender meat? 
(a) Broiling. 

1. Complete the following tabulation: 
Cost of steak. 
Weight as purchased. 



34 Preparation of Food 

Weight when trimmed for broiling. 
Weight after broiling. 
Per cent, of loss in cooking. 
Weight of refuse. 
Cost per pound of edible portion. 
Inner temperature when done. 
Time required. 
See that the steak is cut at least i J inches in thickness. 
Wipe clean with a damp cloth and trim off excess of 
fat. Broil over live coals or under gas, turning each 
minute for 3 minutes, after which complete the cooking 
at a lower temperature. The total time required varies 
from 8 to 20 minutes, according to the thickness of the 
steak and the degree of cooking desired. 

Remove to a hot platter and salt evenly. A little salt 
previously sprinkled over the bottom of the dish will 
season the under side of the steak. Serve with any sauce 
liked, but avoid masking the flavor of the meat by the 
addition of stronger ones. 

Describe the difference in color of rare meat and that 
which is underdone (raw). 

2. Repeat process, using a heated iron skillet instead 
of broiler. Compare methods. 
(b) Roasting. 

Tabulate observations as for broiled steak. 
See that the meat selected is clean. Trim off any 
ragged portions, but do not remove fat. Place on a rack 
in the pan, arranging to have the larger cut surfaces ex- 
posed to the direct heat of the oven. The part with the 
greatest surface of fat should be placed uppermost, so 
that the melting fat will accomplish the basting. 



Laboratory Manual 35 

Place in a hot oven — 250 C. — maintaining this tem- 
perature for 15 to 20 minutes, after which the heat 
should be lowered to about 175 C. and the roasting con- 
tinued, allowing from 15 to 30 minutes for each pound, 
according to shape of the cut and the degree of cooking 
desired. 

A thermometer should be inserted in the center of the 
roast and the inner temperature noted. 

What is the lowest temperature at which meat can be 
termed cooked ? What is the highest temperature at which 
it may still be regarded as rare ? What temperature indi- 
cates that it is well done, i. e., has lost all red color ? What 
are the unavoidable losses in roasting meat ? Are broiling 
and roasting comparable processes? What is true roast- 
ing? What is pan broiling? Compare these results with 
those obtained in Experiment 57. 

Experiment 60. Preparation of Tough Meat {Beef). 

What must be accomplished in the preparation of tough 
meat if the results are to be satisfactory? 

Is the process outlined in Experiment 54 a practicable 
one for the housekeeper? Suggest circumstances where 
it might be useful. 

What is the difference between scraped meat and that 
which has been chopped, ground, or pounded ? 

In Experiment 55 what was accomplished in the cook- 
ing of sample ( 1 ) ? 

From your previous experiments with the constituents 
of meat, what temperature would you suggest as likely to 
afford the best results in the long cooking ? 



36 Preparation of Food 

(a) Hamburg Steak. 

Prepare the meat by removing skin, gristle, and bone, 
and either chopping or grinding it. If meat is lean add 
some suet or other fat (about J). Season and shape into 
cakes about f of an inch in thickness. Pan broil (8 to 10 
minutes), turning frequently. 

(b) Beef Loaf. 

Prepare meat as above. Shape into a loaf. Place 
small pieces of fat meat on top to accomplish the basting 
and cook in the oven, following in general the directions 
given for the roast. 

What difference may be expected between the above 
preparations and a tender steak or roast ? 

(c) Swiss Steak. 

Season well a thick round steak. Pound flour into it 
on both sides. Saute in hot fat until well browned, then 
add sufficient hot water to barely cover and cook very 
slowly until tender (2 to 3 hours). 

(d) Pot Roast. 

1. Sear a cut of beef (3 to 4 lbs of a shoulder cut) 
in an iron kettle, using suet as above. Season and add J c 
water. Arrange to carry on the cooking slowly for 4 or 
5 hours, adding water from time to time if necessary. 

2. Sear and season meat as above, but do not add 
water. Transfer to a double boiler and finish the cooking. 

Compare the two methods as to convenience. Explain 
any differences in results. 

(e) Brown Stew. 

Cut lean beef into inch cubes (neck beef will be found 
quite satisfactory) . Season each piece, dredge thoroughly 



Laboratory Manual $7 

with flour, and brown on all sides in a frying pan, using 
a little suet to prevent sticking and to give necessary fat. 
Add sufficient hot water to cover the meat, and when this 
has boiled up once, turn all into a double boiler and cook 
for 3 hours. One hour before the stew is finished add any 
vegetables liked, cutting these also into cubes. {Excep- 
tion. — Potatoes require a less time for cooking.) 

(/) Beef Cooked in Water — Soup Stock. 

Take a piece of fore shank of beef (4 to 5 lbs). Place 
in a large soup kettle and cover with boiling water, add 
seasonings and simmer slowly until the meat is tender. 
Do not overcook. 

Various combinations may be made with this product. 

1. Vegetables may be added, constituting a " boiled 
dinner." 

2. Dumplings may be added. 

3. The meat may be removed and served hot with 
tomato sauce, or sliced cold, or used as " left-over." 

4. Clarify the stock if desired — see Experiment 57. 
Strain and allow to cool. When needed, remove fat from 
surface, reheat, add seasonings. Serve. 

VEAL. PORK. MUTTON. 
General Observations 

Review drawings. Compare each with beef (a) as 
to the names of the general divisions of the carcasses ; 
(b) as to color, texture, distribution of lean and fat. 

What are the chief differences between beef and 
veal? 



38 Preparation of Food 

What methods used in the cooking of beef are entirely 
unsuited to the preparation of veal? Why? 

Experiment 61. Application of Heat. 

(a) Pan broil a small piece of veal steak, a pork chop, 
and a mutton chop according to directions given in Experi- 
ment 59, but stopping the process at the "rare cooked" 
stage. 

(b) Repeat, but continue until the samples are well 
done. 

Compare results as to appearance, flavor, and general 
desirability. Which are lacking in flavor ? How may this 
deficiency be overcome in pork ? In veal ? 

Note. — Avoid eating rare pork. Why? 

Experiment 62. Veal Cutlets. 

Cut veal steak into portions of uniform size and shape, 
or use veal chops. Pound each piece lightly. Season with 
salt and pepper, reshape, dip in beaten egg, and roll in fine 
bread crumbs. Saute in a liberal amount of fat, turning 
often until browned and well done (about 10 minutes). 

Is the coating of egg more efficient than simply searing 
the surface of the meat? 

Experiment 63. Jellied Veal. 

Prepare a shank of veal as directed in Experiment 60 
(/), seasoning well. Remove the meat from the stock, 
cut into small pieces, place in a suitable mold, cover with 
stock, cool. Place in refrigerator until jelly is firm. Slice 
cold, serve with catsup, salad dressing, or pickle. The 



Laboratory Manual 39 

stock remaining may be used in the making of consomme, 
or as a foundation for vegetable soups. 

Experiment 64. Roast Pork. 

Roast a rib cut of pork according to directions given 
in Experiment 59, being careful to continue the process 
until the pork is thoroughly done and the flavor well 
developed. 

Serve with hot apple sauce. 

Experiment 65. Sausage. 

Prepare pork according to direction for Hamburg 
Steak (Experiment 60), with the addition of other season- 
ing if desired. 

Experiment 66. Leg of Lamb. 

Roast a leg of lamb according to the directions given 
for roasting beef. 

What degree of cooking is desirable for this cut? 

POULTRY 
General Observations 

Observe plucked, undrawn poultry. Compare young 
and old fowls as to color and texture of skin, hairs, con- 
dition of feet, tip of breast bone, flexibility of joints, 
amount of fat, and condition of flesh. 

What may a clammy, broken skin and flabby muscles 
indicate as to the freshness of the fowl ? 

Locate and number the different cuts of a chicken. 



40 Preparation of Food 

Experiment 67. Preparation of Chicken for Cooking — 
Demonstration. 
Note weight of fowl before and after it is drawn and 
compute increase in price per pound. 

Experiment 68. Preparation of Young Chicken. 

Select a young chicken, dress, clean, and cut in pieces. 
Wash quickly in cold water, drain. Season each piece 
with salt and pepper, coat thickly with flour, and saute 
in a liberal amount of pork fat, turning frequently until 
tender and well browned. 

Experiment 69. Preparation of Old Chicken. 

(a) Roast Chicken. 

Dress and clean a chicken, rub it inside and out with 
salt, stuff and truss. Put strips of bacon across the breast 
and legs, or rub well with bacon fat and flour. Place on 
its back on rack in roaster. Place in a hot oven. When 
the skin begins to brown, reduce the heat and continue the 
cooking until tender. 

The foundation of stuffing for chicken is lightly 
crumbled bread, moistened with hot water and melted 
fat, and seasoned to suit the taste. Care should be taken 
not to make the stuffing too wet, lest it be soggy. 

(b) Chicken en Casserole. 

Dress, clean, and cut a chicken in pieces. Roll in flour 
and saute until the outside is browned in fat in which one 
small onion has been cooked. Transfer to a heated casse- 
role, add a few pieces each of celery, carrot, and pimento. 



Laboratory Manual 41 

Rinse out the frying pan in which the chicken has been 
browned with i| c boiling water, add this to the casse- 
role. Cover and cook in slow oven 2 to 3 hours. 

(c) Jellied Chicken. 

Preparation same as for Jellied Veal (Experiment 63) . 

Using the data obtained from charts, references, and 
in laboratory work: 

1. Compare 1 lb of meat from various cuts with 
I qt of milk in regard to total nutrients and calorific value. 

2. Estimate the amount of meat that can be secured 
for one dollar in the local market, in the following cuts : 
Round steak, porterhouse, rib roast, chuck, rump, neck, 
pork chops, veal chops, chicken. 

3. Estimate the amount of edible meat each of the 
above cuts yields. 

4. Tabulate results obtained above, showing: 

(a) Weight and cost per lb of meat as purchased. 

(b) Weight and cost per lb of edible portion. 

(c) Calories as purchased. 

(d) Calories in edible portion. 

FISH 
General Observations 

Observe the general structure of a fish, noting color 
of skin, kind of scales, if present, condition and color of 
flesh. 

How distinguish the various kinds of fish? 



42 Preparation of Food 

Experiment 70. Effect of Heat. 

Place a small piece of fish in boiling water and boil 
rapidly for 15 minutes. Compare with the results which 
would be obtained from a similar treatment of beef. What 
is suggested as to the structure, composition, and flavor 
offish? 

Experiment 71. Cooking of Fish. 

(a) Boiled Fish. 

Place fish on wire rack, and lower into boiling water 
to which has been added 1 tsp salt and 1 tbsp vinegar for 
each quart of water. Simmer for 15 minutes. Drain. 
Serve with an acid sauce. 

(b) Baked Fish. 

Clean the fish, boning if desired, sprinkle with salt and 
pepper inside and out, stuff, and truss. Brush over with 
melted butter and dredge with flour. Place small pieces 
of salt pork over the fish and bake i^ hours, having the 
oven very hot (275 C.) for the first 15 minutes, lower- 
ing to about 200 C. for the remainder of the time. Serve 
with Hollandaise sauce. 

Compare with veal steak as to cost of protein. How 
do the time per pound for roasting and the oven temper- 
atures compare with those used for beef roast? 

Fish Stuffing. 

3 c bread crumbs 2 eggs 

1 tsp chopped parsley J tsp each salt and 

2 tsp chopped onion pepper 
(or 1 tsp onion juice) } c butter 

Moisten the crumbs with the butter melted in a little 



Laboratory Manual 43 

hot water. Add the seasoning and lastly the eggs well 
beaten. 

Hollandaise Sauce. 

■J c butter Few grains paprika 

Yolks of 2 to 4 eggs -J c boiling water 
i tsp salt Juice of \ lemon 

Cream the butter; add the yolks of the eggs one at a 
time and beat into the butter thoroughly; add the salt, 
paprika, and water, and cook in double boiler, stirring 
constantly, until the sauce thickens ; then add the lemon 
juice and remove from fire. The number of yolks depends 
upon the consistency desired in the sauce ; lift the sauce- 
pan from the water from time to time, lest the sauce be 
overcooked. 

Why are sauces so generally used with fish ? 

(c) Sauted Fish. 

Use small fish or fish steaks. Sprinkle with salt and 
pepper. Roll in flour or corn meal. Saute in a liberal 
amount of lard or oil. Serve hot. 

SHELL-FISH 

Observe the specimens of shell-fish provided. Note 
essential differences between crabs, lobsters, etc. ; and 
oysters, clams, and scallops. 

Experiment 72. 

(a) Boil a few oysters for 5 minutes. 

(b) Simmer a few oysters until the edges curl slightly. 
Compare as to texture and flavor. 



44 Preparation of Food 

What deductions may be made as to the temperature 
at which oysters should be cooked ? 

Does this hold in the cooking of other shell-fish? 

Experiment 73. Oyster Stew. 

Take equal measures of clean, drained oysters and a 
liquid made of whole milk and the liquor from the oysters. 
Heat the liquid to boiling, add the oysters, season with 
salt, pepper, and butter, and continue the heating until the 
edges curl. Serve at once. 

Experiment 74. Sauted Oysters. 

Clean and drain the oysters, and prepare same as veal 
cutlets (Experiment 62). 

Should the oysters be cooked a longer or a shorter 
time than the veal ? Why ? 

TYPES OF CURED MEAT AND FISH 

Classify cured meats and fish according to methods 
of curing. 

What principle underlies all processes for the curing 
of meat? 

Give advantages and disadvantages of the various 
methods. 

In the cooking of cured meats is it possible or desirable 
to remove all traces of the preserving agent? 

Experiment 75. Corned Beef. 

Select a piece of beef having a good proportion of fat. 
Wash well in plenty of cold water. Place in a large-sized 



Laboratory Manual 45 

vessel, cover with cold water, bring gradually to the 
simmering point. If it is suspected that the brine used 
in the curing was very strong, this water may be drained 
off and replaced by fresh water of about the same tem- 
perature. Continue the simmering for 5 or 6 hours. Let 
cool in the water in which it was cooked. Why? After- 
wards drain well, slice very thin, and serve. 

Experiment 76. Boiled Ham. 

Process essentially the same as outlined for corned 
beef. 

Experiment 77. Salted Fish (Mackerel or White Fish). 
Wash the fish free from salt in plenty of cold water. 
Allow to soak in fresh water for some hours (6 to 10). 
Place in a pan of cold water, bring to the simmering point, 
and cook for 15 minutes. Drain carefully, season well 
with butter, and serve hot, or an egg sauce may be used. 
Egg Sauce. 

3 tbsp butter 1 c milk or water 

1 tbsp flour Salt and pepper 

2 eggs cooked hard 
Heat the butter in a saucepan until it bubbles ; stir in 
the flour, mixing thoroughly ; add milk, salt, and pepper. 
Let boil up well, remove from fire, and stir in the eggs cut 
into quarters. Pour over the fish. 

Experiment 78. Broiled Bacon. 

Pan broil thin slices of bacon until crisp. Drain off 
the fat well before serving. 

What can you say as to the digestibility of bacon? 



46 Preparation of Food 

Experiment 79. Broiled Ham. 

Process same as in Experiment 78. 

Experiment 80. Creamed Dried Beef. 

Take J lb dried beef. Separate into pieces, pour hot 
water over, and drain well. Put into white sauce made 
as follows : 

Melt 2 tbsp of butter in a saucepan, add 1 tbsp of flour, 
mix well. Add 1 c of milk, stirring carefully until the 
mixture boils. Serve hot. 

Experiment 81. Creamed Codfish. 

Cut codfish into small pieces, allowing f c of fish to 
1 c of white sauce, made as in Experiment 80. Soak the 
fish until salt is sufficiently removed. Cook until tender. 
Drain, add sauce, heat, and serve. 

LEFT-OVERS 

What is the chief object sought for in preparation of 
dishes from food materials remaining from their first 
serving? What principle should guide in determining 
the manner of utilizing these materials? What must be 
avoided in the second cooking of meat? What can you 
say as to the digestibility of so-called "made" dishes? 
Why can no definite recipes be formulated for the use of 
left-overs? 

Experiment 82. Preparation of Left-Overs. 

Devise four ways for utilizing cold cooked beef. 
Record all extra food materials and seasonings used. 



Laboratory Manual 47 

Suggest cases in which the left-over itself may be utilized 
as a seasoning. Determine if the results are worth the 
extra materials, the time, and the fuel used. 

GELATIN 

Experiment 83. Comparison of Commercial Gelatins. 

(For sources of gelatin see Experiment 55 (1), Ex- 
periment 60 (b), Experiment 63.) 

Compare the various commercial gelatins as to effi- 
ciency and cost by preparing 1%, 3%, and 5% solutions 
of each, using 1 tsp of gelatin as a basis. 

Estimate the price paid for sugar in the "ready to use" 
preparations. 

Experiment 84. Properties of Gelatin. 

1. Cover 1 tsp of gelatin with \ c cold water and let 
stand 10 minutes. 

2. Cover 2 tsp of gelatin with 4 tbsp of hot water. 

3. Boil mixture ( 1 ) . Cool. 

4. When (3) begins to stiffen, beat with Dover egg- 
beater. Carefully note results of each of the processes 
above. Compare each with effect of similar process upon 
albumin. 

Experiment 85. Influence of Added Ingredients. 

I. Soak \ tsp of gelatin in 1 tbsp of water. Dissolve 
1 tbsp of sugar in enough hot water to make \ c. Add 
soaked gelatin. Continue heating gently until gelatin 
dissolves. Cool and set on ice. 



48 Preparation of Food 

2. Same as (1), but use 1 tbsp of lemon juice as part 
of the liquid. 

3. Same as (1), but use 1 tbsp of fresh grated pine- 
apple. 

4. Same as (1), but use 1 tbsp of canned pineapple. 
Compare results and explain. What is the nutritive 

value of gelatin? What is its chief value in the prepara- 
tion of food? 

From material used above prepare a small pudding, 
also formulate a recipe on the basis of a quart of liquid. 

FATS AND OILS 

References: 

Leach. Food Inspection and Analysis. 

Simmons and Mitchell. Edible Fats and Oils. 

Sherman. Food Products. 

Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. 

Tolman and Munson. Olive Oil and Its Substitutes. 

Bulletin 77, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau 

of Chemistry. 
Ellis. Hydrogenation of Oils. Journal of Industrial 

and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. V, pp. 95-106. 

Observe samples shown of the more common fats and 
oils, noting source, physical characters, composition, price, 
and use. 

Compare in calorific value butter, lard, olive oil, oleo- 
margarine, and peanut butter with whole milk. 

Experiment 86. Distinguishing Butter from Oleomar- 
garine. 



Laboratory Manual 49 

"Spoon Test" 

"Place a small portion (about 5 grams) of the sample 
to be tested in a tablespoon and melt over a small flame. 
Then, increasing the heat, bring to as brisk a boil as possi- 
ble, and after the boiling has begun, stir the contents of 
the spoon thoroughly, not neglecting the outer edges, two 
or three times at intervals during the boiling, always 
shortly before the boiling ceases. 

"Oleomargarine and renovated butter boil noisily, 
sputtering (more or less) like a mixture of grease and 
water when boiled, and produces no foam, or but very 
little. Renovated butter produces usually a very small 
amount. 

"Genuine butter boils usually with less noise, and 
produces an abundance of foam." — Bulletin 131, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture. 

Experiment 87. Preparation of Fat from Fatty Tissues 
— "Rendering." 
Weigh fat from beef or pork and cut into small pieces. 
Heat slowly over a low flame until the fat separates out 
and the connective tissue remaining begins to brown 
slightly. Drain through cheesecloth, pressing well to 
obtain as much as possible of the clear fat. Cool and 
weigh. Compare cost per pound with cost of commercial 
fats. 

Experiment 88. Effect of Heat on Fats. 

Heat a small amount of beef fat, butter, cotton seed oil, 
lard, olive oil, and lard substitutes. Note the temperature 



50 Preparation of Food 

of decomposition in each case as indicated by the smok- 
ing of the fat. 

Which of these fats seem best adapted for use in fry- 
ing foods? Why? 

What chemical changes have taken place ? 

How do the nature and the condition of the food influ- 
ence the temperature of the fat in which it is to be fried? 

What precautions are to be observed in using fat in 
frying ? 

Experiment 89. Frying. 

Prepare three kettles with weighed portions of frying 
fat. Heat each. Keep (a) at 175 C. ; (b) at 185 C. ; 
(c) at 195 ° C. Observing due precaution, test these tem- 
peratures as to their suitability for the three typical prepa- 
rations, doughnuts, croquettes, and Saratoga potatoes, 
prepared as directed below. 
Doughnuts. 

Prepare a plain doughnut mixture as given below. 
Bake a part of this and fry the remainder. Compare as 
to flavor and texture. 

\ c sugar \ c sour milk 

1 egg 1 tbsp butter 

J tsp soda 1 tsp baking powder 

Salt \ tsp cinnamon 

Flour (note amount) 
Mix sugar, butter, cinnamon, beaten egg, milk, and 
salt in the order named. Stir in J c of the flour sifted 
with the baking powder, adding enough more flour to 
make a soft dough. Use this for the making of 12 dough- 



Laboratory Manual 51 

nuts. Weigh frying fat before and after using. Compute 
cost of doughnuts per dozen. 

Salmon Croquettes. 

Suggest the materials which must be added to cooked 
salmon in order that it may be handled and cooked as 
croquettes. Prepare and serve. 

Note inner temperature of croquette when done. 

Why should no uncooked ingredients be used in the 
mixture ? 

Saratoga Potatoes. 

Pare potatoes of medium size ; slice very thin into cold 
water. Let stand until crisp. Dry well and fry until the 
slices are a delicate brown and curled at the edges. Drain 
well and sprinkle with salt. 

Cheese Balls {Individual) . 

I tbsp finely divided A few grains of salt and 

cheese paprika 

I tsp beaten egg white Cracker crumbs 

Mix together the cheese, salt, paprika, and stiffly beaten 
egg white. Form into small balls, roll in cracker crumbs, 
and fry to a delicate brown. Note inner temperature of 
balls after frying. Why is the coating of egg omitted 
in this case ? 

Name other preparations to be fried and indicate the 
temperature to be used in each case. 

What is the principal reason for the frying of food ? 

Experiment 90. Clarifying Fat. 

To clarify the fats used in above experiment, let cool, 
reheat, add a few slices of raw potato, and cook slowly 



52 Preparation of Food 

until these begin to brown. Then pour the fat through 
a suitable strainer, rejecting the settlings. 

Experiment 91. Fat in a Flour Mixture — Shortening. 

(a) Mix J c flour, J tsp salt, and 3 tbsp water into a 
smooth dough. Roll out thin, bake in a rather hot oven. 

(b) Mix -J c flour, ^ tsp salt, 2 tbsp lard ; add sufficient 
water to make dough as above. Bake. 

Compare as to texture and flavor. 
Explain the action of the fat in (b). 

Experiment 92. Temperature and Manipulation. 

Prepare three portions of dough, using 1 c flour, -J tsp 
salt, J c lard in each case. 

(a) Have all the ingredients at room temperature. 
Add salt to flour, mix in the fat well, adding enough water 
to make a smooth dough. Roll out thin, bake. 

(b) Have ingredients at refrigerator temperature. 
Rub fat into flour lightly with tips of the fingers, mix to 
a dough with ice water, handling as little as possible. Roll 
out quickly, bake. 

(c) Have ingredients cold as in (b). Make a dough 
using half the lard. Roll out quickly, spread with -J the 
remaining lard. Fold the dough in from all sides, patting 
it down. Roll out again, spread with remaining lard. 
Fold and roll as before, bake. 

Compare (a), (b), (c) as to tenderness and flakiness. 
Explain the purpose of the various points in the manipu- 
lation. How modify the procedure in (c) in order to 
increase tenderness and flakiness? Use (a) or (b) as a 



Laboratory Manual 53 

pie crust with any filling desired. What precautions must 
be taken in preparing a pie with a top crust? (c) may be 
baked in patty shells and filled with any hot, creamed meat 
or fish. 

Lemon Filling for Pie, 

1 c sugar 2 c boiling water 

5 tbsp flour. Corn- 2 egg yolks 

starch may be used 1 tsp butter 

instead of flour 1 lemon, juice and grated 

(more or less ?) rind 

Mix the sugar, flour, butter, and lemon, add the hot 
water and let boil up. Place in double boiler and cook 
10 minutes. (When shall the egg be added?) Fill into 
the crust and cover with a meringue made of the whites 
of the eggs and 4 tbsp of sugar. Brown lightly in the 
oven. 

SALAD DRESSINGS 
Experiment 93. 

(a) French Dressing. 

2 tbsp vinegar \ tsp salt 

6 tbsp oil \ tsp pepper 

Few grains paprika 
Mix together salt, pepper, and oil. Add acid slowly 
and beat until an emulsion is formed. 

(b) Mayonnaise — Quick Method. 
Whole egg (unbeaten) -| tsp salt 

1 c olive oil I to 2 tbsp acid 

•J tsp mustard Cayenne or paprika 

Begin with egg, 4 tbsp oil, and 1 tbsp acid. Beat until 



54 Preparation of Food 

thick. Add the remainder of the oil and the acid alter- 
nately, continue the beating until all are emulsified. 

Explain the nature of these two products. How do 
they differ and why? 

Compare whipped cream, Experiment 26. 

Use these dressings in the making of suitable salads. 
See Experiment 17. 

Experiment 94. Practice Demonstration. 

Present to the class some phase of the work done 
during the course, illustrating the principles involved by 
a suitable demonstration. 

This exercise should cover the following points: 

(a) Name of the dish. 

(b) Statement of the principle to be demonstrated. 

(c) Brief discussion of materials used. 

(d) Points observed in selection of materials, utensils, 
and manipulation. 

(e) Menus in which this dish is used. 
(/) Cost and dietetic value. 



SECOND SEMESTER 

PRESERVATION OF FOOD 1 

References: 

Buchanan. Household Bacteriology. 

Conn. Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds. 

Marshall. Microbiology. 

Sherman. Food Products. 

Farmers' Bulletin 175. Home Manufacture and Use 
of Un fermented Grape Juice. 

Farmers' Bulletin 359. Canning Vegetables in the 
Home. 

Farmers' Bulletin 426. Canning Peaches on the Farm. 

Farmers' Bulletin 521. Canning Tomatoes at Home 
and in Club Work. 

Circular 108, California Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion. Grape Juice. 

Bulletin No. 7, University of Illinois, Department of 
Household Science. Jelly and Jelly Making. 

Bulletin No. 102, Delaware Agricultural Experiment 
Station. Fruit Juices. 

Experiment 95. Agencies for Preservation. 

Pare ripe peaches, cutting them into quarters. Place 
5 or 6 pieces in a small dish and expose at room temper- 
ature as a check upon the experiments which follow. 

I. Place a sample in the refrigerator. 

1 For preservation of animal foods see Course I. 
55 



56 Preparation of Food 

2. Place slices of fruit in a jar. Cover with water 
and seal. 

3. Prepare a second sample as above ; heat in steamer 
for 30 minutes. 

4. Cover slices with alcohol. 

5. Cover slices with vinegar. 

6. Cover slices with sirup made by boiling 4 parts 
sugar and 1 part water. 

7. Cover a slice evenly with ground spice. 

8. Cover with sugar. 

9. Cover with salt. 

10. Suspend a slice upon a toothpick or fine wire in the 
sunshine or cool oven, to dry entire surface. 

Examine samples at intervals, comparing them with 
the check. 

What are the principal causes of decomposition in 
food materials ? 

Classify the means which have been employed for 
retarding or preventing bacterial action. 

Experiment 96. Comparison of Jars. 

During the work in application of sterilization which 
follows, compare the various kinds of fruit jars offered 
in the market as to efficiency, convenience, and cost. 
(Average life of fruit jar is estimated at five years.) 

Experiment 97. Canning Peaches. 

Prepare peaches by paring and dividing into halves. 
(a) Place prepared fruit in sterilized cans ; cover with 



Laboratory Manual 57 

sirup made by using 3 parts sugar to 4 parts water. See 
that cans are well filled. Seal. Steam 1 hour. 

(b) Same as (a), but using water instead of sirup. 

(c) Place prepared fruit in boiling sirup (of what 
density?) in open vessel. Cook until tender, fill into 
sterilized cans and seal. 

When would method (b) be justifiable? 

Keep a record of the amount of fruit (as purchased) 
used in filling each can. Compute cost of fruit, sugar, can, 
and estimate cost of gas consumed. 

Examine samples after 2 or 3 months, comparing the 
results of the three methods. Test effect of light on canned 
goods. 

Experiment 98. Canning Tomatoes. 

(a) Scald and remove skins and core from ripe 
tomatoes (about 2 lbs) ; cut in quarters and cook 30 
minutes in their own juice. Fill into sterilized jars and 
seal. 

(b) Prepare tomatoes (1 lb) as in (a), but do not 
quarter them. Place them in jars, pressing them down 
carefully. Fill jar with strained tomato juice [left from 
(a)] ; steam 1 hour. Seal. 

Experiment 99. Tomato Juice. 

Wash 1 lb ripe tomatoes, removing the cores. Cut 
into small pieces ; cook until thoroughly softened ; rub 
through a sieve or colander to remove skins and seeds. 
Reheat ; fill into jars and seal. 



58 Preparation of Food 

Experiment 100. Grape Juice, 

(o) Wash 1 lb grapes, pick from stems, add -i their 
volume of water, and cook below 05° Q until seeds begin 
to show. Strain out juice. Add a second volume of water 
to pulp and cook as before. Strain out juice, mixing with 
first portion. Add £ volume of sugar, reheat, and seal. 

(/A Mash fresh grapes well, press out juice, strain 
through cheesecloth. Measure the juice and add an equal 
volume of sugar. Put into jars and seal. Dilute with 
ice water before serving. 

The residue may be used for the making of jelly- 
Experiment 101. Canning Beans. 

Prepare green beans (f lb for pint jar) by washing 
well and removing the tips of the pods and the strings. 
Break into pieces about J inch in length. Place in wire 
basket and boil for 5 minutes. Drain. Place in jars, to 
within 1 inch of top. Add .} tsp salt and till jar with hot 
water. Screw the covers down tight. Steam 5 to o hours, 
according to the age of beans. Let stand in steamer until 
cool. 

Experiment 102. Canning Com. 

Select perfect corn, free from silk, and cut from the 
cob. Pack firmly into jars to within 1 inch of top. add 
■\ tsp salt, and till up jar with cold water. Screw down 
the covers. Steam 4 hours. 

List the utensils for a canning outfit. 



Laboratory Manual 59 

Under what circumstances would the use of a pressure 
cooker be of advantage? 

Classify the methods used in canning. 

Use of Preservatives (Spices) 

Experiment 103. Tomato Catsup. 

1 gal tomato juice 1 oz whole peppercorns 

1 qt cider vinegar 1 oz whole spice 

1 lb brown sugar £ oz whole cloves 

4 oz salt £ oz whole ginger 

1 oz ground mustard 
Add the other ingredients to the tomato juice, tying 
the whole spices in a piece of cheesecloth. Simmer for 
i^ hours. Bottle and seal. 

Experiment 104. Sweet Pickle. 

Pare the fruit and cut into halves or quarters. If very 
hard, steam until tender. Cook until clear in sirup made 
of ^ c vinegar, ^ lb sugar, with spices to suit taste. Skim 
out fruit and place in jars. Boil the sirup until reduced 
to its original volume and pour over fruit. 

Experiment 105. Cucumber Pickle. 

1 qt vinegar f c light brown sugar 

i c salt J c dry mustard 

Wash the cucumbers, put into a jar. Mix dry ingredi- 
ents, add to vinegar, stirring well. Pour this mixture over 
the pickles to cover well. Seal. Let stand for a week 
before using. 



60 Preparation of Food 

JELLY 

Experiment 106. Pectin Test. 

Test for pectin the juice from uncooked apples, grapes, 
and oranges by adding to 2 tbsp of each juice an equal 
volume of 90 to 95% ethyl alcohol, mixing thoroughly 
and cooling. 

Repeat the process, using the juices from the cooked 
fruit. Compare results and explain. 

Experiment 107. Crabapple Jelly. 

Wash apples (1 lb), remove stems and blossom end, 
and cut in quarters. Add one-half as much water as fruit. 
Boil until soft. Mash, pour into jelly bag, and let drip. 
Measure the juice, add f measure of sugar, boil until jelly 
drops from the spoon. Note temperature. 

Jelly may be made from a second extraction, or the 
pulp may be used in the making of fruit butter. 

Experiment 108. Grape Jelly. 

General process same as in Experiment 107. 

Experiment 109. Orange Marmalade. 

Slice sour oranges very thin, rejecting the seeds. 
Measure and add four volumes of water. Cook very 
slowly until rinds are tender and transparent. This 
volume should be reduced about }. Add f measure of 
sugar and cook until the mixture jellies. 



Laboratory Manual 61 

What constituents must be present in a given fruit 
in order to produce jelly? 

Compare jellies made with beet and cane sugar. 

Experiment no. Fruit Butter. 

Rub the cooked apples remaining from the jelly 
through a colander to remove skins and seeds. Add to 
this pulp any juice remaining from the jelly-making. Add 
sugar in the proportion of 2 parts sugar to 3 parts pulp, 
with ground spices as liked. Cook until a glaze forms 
upon the surface of a few drops when cooled upon a plate. 
Put away in jelly glasses or jars. 

Preservation by Drying 

Experiment in. Dried Fruit. 

Select fruit of good condition. Weigh when ready for 
drying. Place upon a rack, cover with cheesecloth or 
netting, place in a current of warm air or in the sunshine, 
and dry thoroughly. Note weight when dry and compute 
loss of water. Store in a dry place. 

What method should be used in cooking dried fruit? 
Why? See Experiment 18. 



62 



Preparation of Food 



Comparison of Laboratory and 
Commercial Products 

(a) Use the following scheme in comparing vegetables 
and fruits canned in the laboratory with various grades 
of commercial products : 



Cost 

Weight 

Bulk of solid contents 

Appearance 

Flavor 

General desirability 

Approximate number of servings 




(b) Compare jellies, marmalades, pickles, and catsups 
as in (a). 

CARBOHYDRATES 

References: 

Sherman. Food Products. 

Hall, Mary Elizabeth. Candy Making Revolutionized. 

Farmers' Bulletin 93. Sugar as Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin 121. Beans, Peas, and Other Leg- 
umes as Food. 

Farmers' Bulletin 169. The Food Value of Beans. 

Farmers' Bulletin 244. The Cooking Quality of Pota- 
toes and Factors which Affect It. 

Farmers' Bulletin 295. Potatoes and Other Root Crops 
as Food. 



Laboratory Manual 



63 



Farmers' Bulletin 316. Cooking Cereal Foods. 
Farmers' Bulletin 342. Cooking of Beans and Other 

Vegetables. 
Farmers' Bulletin 517. Uses of the Sweet Potato. 
Farmers' Bulletin 535. Sugar and Its Value as Food. 
Farmers' Bulletin 565. Corn Meal as a Food and Ways 

of Using It. 
Langworthy. Green Vegetables and Their Uses in the 

Diet. Yearbook 191 7, pp. 439-452. 



General Classification of Carbohydrates 



Monosaccharids 



Disaccharids 



f Dextrose 
J Levulose 



I Sucrose 
Lactose 
Maltose 



Polysaccharids 



Starch 
Dextrin 
Glycogen 
.Cellulose 



Experiment 112. Properties of Carbohydrates. 

Examine the forms of carbohydrates given above, 
together with the commercial varieties of sugars, sirups, 
and starches at hand. 



Experiment 113. Chemical Reaction. 

(a) Test each one of the typical forms of carbohy- 
drate with Fehling's test, as follows : 

To J c water add J tsp of the material to be tested. 
Stir well with a glass rod. Heat. Add a few drops of 



64 Preparation of Food 

the CuS0 4 solution, then add the KOH solution until the 
mixture takes on a bluish color. Boil. In which cases is 
there a precipitate formed (yellowish to red) ? What does 
this indicate ? 

(b) To a dilute solution of sucrose, made as above, 
add a few drops of lemon juice, vinegar, or other acid. 
Boil 5 minutes. Test as above. What change is brought 
about in sucrose by heating it with an acid ? 

To a mixture of starch and water add acid as above, 
but continue the boiling from 15 to 20 minutes, adding 
water to keep up to the original volume. Test. What is 
the effect of heating starch with an acid? What commer- 
cial use is made of this principle? 

(c) (Demonstration by instructor.) 

To a small quantity of cellulose (filter paper or fine 
cotton wool) add concentrated sulphuric acid slowly, with 
stirring, until the mass becomes homogeneous. Dilute 
with water. Boil 40 minutes to 1 hour. Test. What is 
the effect of strong acid upon cellulose? 

Experiment 114. Iodine Test. 

Test each carbohydrate as prepared in Experiment 113 
by adding to a small portion, on a white plate, a drop or 
two of iodine. 

In which cases is there a blue coloration ? 

For what substance is this a test ? 



Laboratory Manual 65 

SUCROSE 

Experiment 115. Solubility. 

(a) To i c of granulated sugar add sufficient cold 
water to dissolve. 

(b) To i c of granulated sugar add sufficient hot 
water to dissolve. 

Record amount of water necessary in each case. 

Experiment 116. Crystallisation. 

Mix solutions obtained above and add a little water. 
Divide into three portions, (a), (b), (c). 

Boil (a) 5 minutes, keeping original volume. Pour in 
bottle and let stand. 

To (b) add -J tsp of one of the acids suggested above. 
Boil 5 minutes, pour into bottle and let stand. 

To (c) add 25% glucose and boil as in (a) and (&). 
Let stand. Explain results. 

Experiment 117. Sweetening Power of Sugars. 

Prepare 1 c of sour apple juice as for jelly. Divide 
into two portions, (a) and (b). 

Add 2 tbsp granulated sugar to (a) and boil 5 minutes. 
Cool. 

Boil (b) 5 minutes, then add same quantity of sugar 
as in (a), stirring well. 

Compare the two samples as to sweetness. 

Compare cane sugar with glucose. 

Discuss inversion of sugar in cooking. 



66 Preparation of Food 

Experiment 118. Effect of Moist Heat on Sucrose. 

Dissolve | c of granulated sugar in J c of water. 
(Solutions remaining from Experiment 115 may be used.) 
Boil carefully, arranging to note the temperature at which 
the sirup : 

(a) Forms a thread when dropped from the spoon. 

(b) Forms a soft ball when dropped into cold water. 

(c) Hardens to a brittle mass in cold water. 

(d) Turns to a light brown. 

Arrange also to remove a portion (about 1 tbsp) to a 
small dish at each stage of the heating. 

Compare these different products and suggest uses for 
each. 

Experiment 119. Effect of Dry Heat on Sucrose. 

Place J c of sugar in an omelet pan, and stir constantly 
over a moderate fire until melted. 

(a) Remove 1 tsp quickly to a cool place. Product = 
barley sugar. Will this recrystallize ? 

(b) Continue heating remainder until it becomes a 
light brown color. Cool a little of this and compare with 
(a) as to taste and texture. 

(Add \ c water to (b) and boil to a sirup. Bottle for 
use.) 

Compare these products with (d) in Experiment 118. 

Experiment 120. Table Sirup. 

Using J c of granulated sugar, determine the amount 
of brown sugar and water to be used in the making of a 
sirup by boiling 3 minutes. 



Laboratory Manual 67 

Determine the length of time this sirup will stand 
without crystallizing. 

Compute the cost of a gallon of sirup made in this way. 

Compare with commercial table sirups as to desira- 
bility and cost. 

Experiment 121. Fondant. 

(a) Dissolve \ c sugar in J c water. Add T V tsp cream 
of tartar. Boil to soft ball stage, taking care that the 
sirup does not form crystals on the side of the pan. Let 
stand till cold, then beat with spoon to a soft, creamy mass. 
Remove from the saucepan and mold with the hands. 
Place in a bowl ; cover bowl closely, and let stand until 
the next laboratory period. 

(&) Use 1 tsp of glucose instead of the cream of 
tartar. The other ingredients and the manipulation same 
as in (a). 

(c) Same as (a) and (b), but omitting both cream 
of tartar and glucose. 

Test the sugar used in (c) and also the resulting mass 
for invert sugar. Explain. 

(d) Repeat (a), (b), and (c), beating sirup while 
hot. 

Compare results. 

Experiment 122. Cream Mints. 

Melt fondant over hot water, and flavor with pepper- 
mint. Drop the mixture from the tip of a spoon onto 
oiled paper. 

Weigh and compute the cost per pound. 



68 Preparation of Food 

Experiment 123. Chocolate Creams. 

Mold fondant into small cones. When firm, coat them 
with chocolate, using various commercial brands for 
comparison. 

Prepare the chocolate by melting it in a dish over 
warm water, being careful not to overheat it. Cool creams 
upon oiled paper. 

Compare cost per pound of each variety. 

Very soft fillings may be frozen before dipping. 

Compare these creams with commercial candies. 

What causes "spotting" of chocolate? How may it 
be avoided ? 

Experiment 124. Peanut Brittle. 

Heat ^ c of granulated sugar in an omelet pan over 
a low flame, stirring constantly until it is melted to a sirup. 
Remove from fire, add quickly -J c of chopped peanut 
kernels, and pour at once into a warm buttered pan. 

Compute cost per pound. 

Experiment 125. Glace Nuts or Fruit. 

Boil i c of sugar in J c of water to the brittle or "hard 
crack" stage. Remove the saucepan from the fire, setting 
it into a pan of hot water during the dipping of the nuts 
or fruit. Hold the fruit by the stem and the nuts upon a 
long pin while dipping them in the sirup. Cool upon oiled 
paper. 

Weigh when hard enough to handle, and compute cost 
per pound. 

What is probably the chief item of cost in the prepara- 
tion of commercial Hace nuts? 



Laboratory Manual 69 

STARCH 

Experiment 126. Structure of Grain. 

Examine under the microscope, and make drawings 
of starch cells from corn, potato, rice, and wheat. 

Experiment 127. Solubility of Starch. 

(a) Mix i tsp of starch in 2 tbsp of cold water. Filter. 
Test filtrate and residue for starch. 

(b) Mix J tsp of starch in 2 tbsp of cold water ; heat 
to boiling, filter, and test filtrate and residue for starch. 

Explain. 

Experiment 128. Effect of Heat. 

(a) Heat 1 tsp starch until light brown, stirring con- 
stantly. Taste. Test for starch. What is the product? 

Mix 1 tsp of product above with 2 tsp cold water. 
Add £ c hot water and let boil up once. 

Mix 1 tsp starch with 2 tsp cold water. Add J c hot 
water, stirring well. Let boil up once. 

Compare the products as to consistency of paste. What 
property of the starch was impaired by the dry heating? 

(b) Stir 1 tsp of starch into -| c of boiling water. Ex- 
plain the result. Compare with tapioca. 

(c) Mix 1 tsp starch with J c cold water. Heat in 
double boiler. 

Record temperature at which mixture begins to take 
on a pasty consistency. 

Examine condition of starch cells at this stage under 
the microscope. Make drawings. 



jo Preparation of Food 

Continue heating until temperature becomes stationary. 
Record this temperature. 

Examine condition of starch cells at this temperature. 

(d) Prepare a second sample as above, but heat at 
once over naked flame, boiling for 5 minutes. 

Examine cells from this paste under microscope. 

Compare (c) and (d) as to flavor. 

Is the boiling temperature necessary in order to gela- 
tinize the starch grains ? 

Does this temperature seem to be necessary to the 
development of flavor? 

What can you say as to the digestibility of raw starch ? 

Experiment 129. White Sauces. 

Prepare white sauces of different consistency by using 
the following proportions of ingredients : 





Milk 
c 


Flotir 
tbsp 


Butter 
tbsp 


(a) 1. Thin sauce 


I 


I 


I 


2. Medium sauce 


I 


2 


2 


3. Thick sauce 


I 


3 


2 



Melt butter until it bubbles, add flour, mixing thor- 
oughly. Add milk, stirring constantly. Boil. 

(Z?) Same as (a), using cornstarch instead of flour. 

(c) Repeat (a), but brown flour in the butter before 
adding the milk. 

Explain differences. 

Give uses for sauces of each consistency in (a). 

For what dish is (b) the foundation? Determine 



Laboratory Manual 71 

suitable amounts of sugar, egg, and flavoring to complete 
the dish. When should the egg be added ? 
What are the products in (c) ? 

Experiment 130. Cream of Tomato Soup. 

Using the proper proportions of flour, butter, and 
liquid, prepare cream of tomato soup. 

Serve with croutons prepared by cutting strips f inch 
in width from thick slices of fine-grained bread and toast- 
ing them in a moderate oven to a delicate brown. 

See Experiment 128 (a). 

Experiment 131. Snow Pudding. 

1 c water J tsp vanilla 

1 tbsp cornstarch 1 egg white 

2 tbsp sugar J tsp salt 

Mix the starch in one-fourth of the water. Heat the 
remainder to boiling, stir in the starch, and boil for 10 
minutes. Add the sugar ; remove from the fire and stir 
into it immediately the stiffly beaten egg white, to which 
was added the salt. Add vanilla. 

Heap lightly upon a dish and drop jelly or marmalade 
in the center. Serve cold. 

Experiment 132. Prepare other puddings by varying 
these recipes. 

Experiment 133. Fig Tapioca. 

-J c minute tapioca | c light brown sugar 

1 J c water Cinnamon 

1 lb diced figs 



J2 Preparation of Food 

Cook in double boiler two hours. Serve cold with 
cream. 

Why is the temperature of the double boiler sufficient 
for this preparation ? 

Experiment 134. Escaloped Macaroni or Spaghetti. 

Break the macaroni into small .pieces, cook in boiling, 
salted water until tender. Drain in a colander, rinse with 
cold water. Fill a baking dish with alternate layers of 
macaroni, white sauce, and finely divided cheese, cover 
with buttered crumbs. Bake in a slow oven until crumbs 
are brown. Serve hot. (Prepare buttered crumbs by 
stirring 4 or 5 measures of fine bread crumbs into 1 meas- 
ure of melted butter until the crumbs are well coated.) 

CEREALS 
Experiment 135. 

(a) Examine the following types of breakfast cereals : 
Cracked wheat, oatmeal, corn meal, rice; rolled oats, 
cream of wheat ; shredded wheat, puffed rice, corn flakes. 

Note in each case : bulk, cost per pound, and fuel value. 

(b) Weigh out 1 oz of each of the uncooked cereals 
furnished. Cook over the free flame for 5 minutes, re- 
move to double boiler, and continue the cooking 30 minutes. 

Note: 

1. The measure of dry material taken. 

2. The measure of water used. 

3. The measure of resulting products. 

Is there any relation between the amounts of water 
needed for each ? 



Laboratory Manual 73 

How many of these yield satisfactory products in the 
time allowed ? 

Compare the unsatisfactory products with properly 
cooked samples in regard to flavor and appearance. 

What problem other than the proper cooking of the 
starch is involved in the preparation of cereals? 

Determine the fuel value and cost of an individual 
serving of each cereal. 

Estimate the number of servings in ten cents' worth 
of each. 

Experiment 136. Cooking of Rice. 

(a) Weigh 1 oz of rice, noting its bulk. Wash thor- 
oughly, to remove dust and loose starch from the surface 
of the grains. Add to 4 c of rapidly boiling, salted water 
(£ tsp salt). Keep up the rapid boiling until the rice 
is tender. Transfer to a strainer and pour cold water 
through it. Shake off the surplus water and dry the rice 
a little in the oven. 

(b) Prepare 1 oz of rice as above. Cook for 3 to 5 
minutes in £ c of boiling, salted water (| tsp salt. Why 
less than in (a) ?). Finish the cooking in a double boiler. 
Avoid stirring while cooking. Remove cover from sauce- 
pan and shake the contents for a few minutes to aid in 
drying. 

(c) Continue boiling the water in which the rice was 
cooked in (a) until the volume is reduced about one-half. 
Cool and note consistency. Explain. Add to this the 
ingredients necessary to convert it into a cream of rice 
soup. 



74 Preparation of Food 

(d) Record and compare in (a) and (b) : 

1. Time of cooking. 

2. Weight after cooking. 

3. Bulk. 

4. Appearance. 

5. Flavor. 

Explain any difference in weight and bulk between 
(a) and (&). 

Experiment 137. Escaloped Rice with Cheese. 

Use rice from (a), Experiment 136. Prepare as in 
Experiment 134. 

Experiment 138. Escaloped Rice with Tomato. 

Repeat Experiment 137, but use tomato sauce instead 
of white sauce. 

Experiment 139. Rice Croquettes. 

Add to the rice from (b), Experiment 136, 1 tbsp 
sugar, half of one egg yolk, a little nutmeg or lemon 
extract. Shape into croquettes. Roll in egg and bread 
crumbs. Fry. Serve with jelly. See Experiment 89. 

Experiment 140. Rice Pudding. 

To 1 qt of whole milk add 4 tbsp of well-washed rice, 
4 tbsp of sugar, and J tsp of salt. Bake 3 to 5 hours at a 
low temperature, stirring the pudding up thoroughly 
every hour. When it begins to thicken add f c seeded 
raisins. Finally allow the top to brown nicely. Serve hot 
or cold with thin cream. 



Laboratory Manual 75 

What are some good points in this pudding ? 

Estimate nutritive value. 

For what meal is it best suited ? 

Experiment 141. Spanish Rice. 

Brown 1 c uncooked rice and 1 small onion in 2 tbsp 
butter ; add 1 pt hot water, 1 pt tomato ; season with salt 
and pepper. Cook 30 minutes. 

How has the lack of flavor in rice been overcome in 
the preparations suggested above? 



76 



Preparation of Food 



Comparison of Cereals 
Tabulate results from cooked and ready prepared 
cereals used. 



Name of cereal 



Bulk of 
1 ozdry 



Bulk of 

1 oz 
cooked 



Water 
required 



Time 
required 



Cost of 

individual 

serving 



Fuel 
value 



Laboratory Manual 



77 



Value of Ten Cents in Cereal Foods Compared with Other 
Foods 



Price per 
pound 



Weight of 

ten cents' 

worth 



Total 
nutrients 



Fuel 
value 



Total 

number of 

servings 



?8 Preparation of Food 

Experiment 142. Composition and Preparation of 
Vegetables. 

General Observations 

Examine the vegetables selected and classify them 
as to 

1. The part of the plant used. 

2. The structure. 

3. Chemical composition. 

4. Degree of maturity. 

Cut thin slices of each, noting structure. 

(a) Examine under the microscope. Note arrange- 
ment of starch and cellulose. (Slice may be stained if 
necessary.) 

(b) Cook slices of each in a little water and test water 
for sugar and starch. 

Note relation between the data secured and suggested 
methods of preparation. 

From these observations determine the objects to be 
attained in the preparation of different types of vegetables. 

Experiment 143. Preparation of Potato. 

(a) Cut a very thin slice through the middle of a well- 
washed raw potato. Place in a suitable dish and allow 
the water from the tap to run over it for 15 minutes. 
Drain and pour dilute iodine over the surface. 

(b) At the same time treat similarly with iodine a 
freshly cut unwashed slice. Compare after 5 minutes. 

What constituent has been largely lost by the long 
washing? How does this affect the nutritive value? 



Laboratory Manual 79 

Experiment 144. Cooking of Potato. 
Observe under the microscope : 

(a) A thin slice of raw potato which has been stained 
with iodine. Make a drawing showing the distribution 
of cellulose and starch. 

(b) Compare the above with a similar slice from a 
boiled potato. Upon which constituents has the heat had 
the most marked effect? 

Experiment 145. Influence of Salt. 

Pare potato and divide into half (a) and (b) length- 
wise. 

Put (a) to cook in boiling, salted water, 1 tsp salt to 
2 c of water. At the same time put (b) to cook in same 
quantity of unsalted water. Add 1 tsp salt when potato 
is nearly done. 

Compare (a) and (b) as to time required in cooking 
and also as to texture and flavor. 

Experiment 146. Losses in Cooking Potatoes. 

(a) Wash 8 potatoes, remove imperfections, dry, and 
weigh. 

( 1 ) Bake 2 in hot oven until tender. 

(2) Cook 2 in rapidly boiling water. 

(3) Cook 2 in steamer. 

(4) Pare 2 and cook as in (2). 



8o 



Preparation of Food 



Record 


1 


2 


3 


4 


Weight when ready to cook 










Inner temperature when done 









(b) Reserve one sample of each of the above methods 
of preparation. Put in warm place. Let stand 15 minutes, 
then examine and explain the difference in condition. 

Experiment 147. Comparison of Rice with Potato. 

Using data from (4) in Experiment 146 and from (b) 
in Experiment 136, complete the following tabulation: 




Weight, raw 

Weight, cooked 

Number of servings, cooked 
Fuel value of one serving . . 



Experiment 148. Boiled Potatoes. 

Select potatoes of uniform size. Why? Wash, pare, 
and drop into cold water. Why? Cook in enough boil- 
ing, salted water to keep potatoes well covered through 
the process. As soon as done, drain off all the water and 
dry over low heat. Serve with parsley sauce made as 
follows: 

Cream 3 tbsp butter with 1 tbsp lemon juice, add 
1 tbsp finely chopped parsley. Spread over hot potatoes. 
Serve at once. 



Laboratory Manual 81 

Experiment 149. Mashed Potatoes. 
6 potatoes (boiled) 1 tsp salt 
3 tbsp butter | c hot milk 

The butter, salt, and milk are approximate. Why ? 
Heat the milk and butter together. Mash potatoes 
thoroughly. Add seasonings and milk. Beat until smooth 
and white. Heap lightly in hot dish. 

What essentials to the proper preparation of mashed 
potatoes are so generally disregarded? 

Experiment 150. Creamed Potatoes. 

Boil potatoes as in Experiment 148. Cut into half- 
inch cubes and cover with hot white sauce (of what 
consistency?). 

Cold, boiled potatoes may be used, taking care to allow 
time for the potatoes to be thoroughly heated in the sauce. 

Experiment 151. Potato Croquettes. 

2 c mashed potato £ tsp celery salt 

2 tbsp butter A few grains cayenne 

-J tsp salt A few drops onion j uice 

■J tsp pepper I tsp finely chopped parsley 

Mix ingredients in order given and beat thoroughly. 
Shape into croquettes, dip in beaten egg, and roll in fine 
bread crumbs. Fry 1 minute. Drain on paper. 

If left-over mashed potato is used, omit the butter. 
Why? 

Experiment 152. Szveet Potato Croquettes. 

Repeat Experiment 151, using sweet potatoes, seasoned 
with salt and butter. 



82 Preparation of Food 

Experiment 153. Stuffed Potatoes. 

Cut hot baked potato in two lengthwise. Remove 
inside carefully, and season with butter (about 1 tsp), 
salt, pepper, and a little milk. Mash and beat up well. 
Heap lightly in skins and brown in the oven. 

Experiment 154. Steamed Sweet Potatoes. 

Steam potatoes until tender, reserving one for com- 
parison below. Remove skins, oil lightly with butter, 
sprinkle a very little sugar over, and brown a few minutes 
in the oven. 

Compare the steamed sweet potato with a baked one 
and with a boiled one. Explain differences. 

What is the objection to cooking sweet potatoes in 
water ? 

Experiment 155. Boiled Beets. 

Select small, young beets. Wash and cook in boiling 
water until tender, without removing the skins. Why? 
Put into cold water and slip off the skins quickly. Slice 
and reheat with butter, salt, and pepper. Serve hot. 

Experiment 156. Carrots en Casserole. 

Wash and scrape carrots. Cut in slices \ inch thick. 
Arrange in casserole. Add a very little hot water. Season 
with butter, salt, and pepper. Cover and cook slowly in 
a moderate oven until tender. 

Experiment 157. Sauted Parsnips. 

Wash and scrape parsnips. Slice lengthwise. Cook 
in skillet in a very little water until tender. Drain off any 



Laboratory Manual 83 

water remaining. Season with salt, add butter, and saute 
until slices are browned. 

Give reasons for choice of methods used in cooking 
beets, carrots, and parsnips. 

Experiment 158. Cooking of Strong Flavored 
Vegetables. 

(a) Boiled Onions. 

Wash white onions, remove skins. Cover with boiling, 
salted water, boil 5 minutes. Drain, and again cover with 
boiling, salted water. Simmer in open vessel for 1 hour 
or until tender. Drain, season with butter, salt, and 
pepper ; or 

(b) Creamed Onions. 

Cook as above, but serve in white sauce. Of what 
consistency ? 

What constituents of onions are lost by cooking in 
a large amount of water? Why is such a method 
chosen ? 

(c) Cook cauliflower, cabbage, or turnips in a large 
amount of water in an open vessel until tender, changing 
water if necessary. Drain. 

(d) Creamed Cauliflower. See Creamed Onions 
above. 

(e) Escaloped Cabbage. 

Arrange alternate layers of cooked cabbage and white 
sauce in a baking dish. Cover with buttered crumbs. 
Heat in oven until crumbs are brown. 

(/) Escaloped Turnips. 

Fill a well-buttered baking dish with alternate layers 



84 Preparation of Food 

of diced cooked turnips and crumbled crackers. Season 
each layer with salt, pepper, and a liberal amount of butter. 
Add milk until it covers top layer. Let stand a moment 
until crackers have absorbed milk. Then cover with 
buttered crumbs, and bake until thoroughly heated and 
browned on top. 

Experiment 159. Cooking of Spinach. 

Prepare spinach by removing roots, discarding wilted 
leaves, and washing in several waters to free it from grit. 
Lift the spinach from the wash water instead of draining 
the water off. Why? If it is young and tender put in a 
stew pan, allow to heat gradually, and boil 25 minutes, 
or until tender, in its own juices. Old spinach is better 
cooked in boiling, salted water, allowing 2 quarts of water 
to 1 peck of spinach. Drain thoroughly, chop fine, reheat, 
and season with butter, salt, and pepper. Serve hot, with 
slices of hard-boiled eggs as a garnish. 

Experiment 160. Preparation of Canned Green 
Vegetables. 
Open the can and empty at once. Why? The flavor 
is usually improved by allowing the contents to stand for 
some time exposed to the air. Drain off the excess of 
liquor. Season with butter, salt, and white pepper. Heat 
in double boiler 30 minutes. 

Experiment 161. Uncooked Green Vegetables. 
See Experiments 17 and 93. 



Laboratory Manual 85 

Experiment 162. Vegetable Stew. 

J c carrot 1 tbsp onion 

^ c turnip 3 tbsp butter 

■J c celery 1 tsp parsley 

1 J c potato 1 tsp (?) salt 

1 qt water Pepper 

Cut the vegetables into half -inch cubes. Saute in the 
butter until a delicate brown. Add the salt and pepper 
and lastly the water, hot. Simmer for 1 hour. Add 
potatoes the last 20 minutes. 

By what special means has flavor been developed in 
this preparation? 

In which of the above methods of preparation of 
vegetables will there be least loss of mineral constituents ? 

Experiment 163. Cooking of Dried Lima Beans. 

Wash beans, soak for 12 hours or longer, drain, cover 
with cold water, simmer until tender. Cook off any excess 
of water. Season with butter, salt, and pepper. 

Experiment 164. Baked Navy Beans. 

Weigh and measure dry beans. Soak over night in 
cold water. Drain. 

Cover with cold water to which has been added some 
baking soda (J tsp to 1 pt of water). Heat slowly and 
cook until the skins begin to burst. 

Pour off water. Add J tsp of salt and 2 tsp molasses 
for each cup of dry beans used. Mix well, place in bean 
jar, put small cubes of salt pork on top, cover with water. 



86 Preparation of Food 

Bake slowly for 6 to 8 hours. (What temperature?) 
Add more water if needed. Record : 

Weight of beans before cooking. 

Weight of beans after cooking. 

Bulk of beans after cooking. 

Compare in cost and fuel value with a sufficient amount 
of round steak to serve an equal number of persons. 

Experiment 165. Lentil Loaf. 

I c dried lentils I tbsp chopped parsley 

I stalk celery Few drops onion juice 

I or 2 eggs I or 2 c soft, stale bread 

1 \ tbsp melted butter crumbs 
I tsp salt \ c broken nut meats, if 

■J tsp pepper desired 

Soak lentils over night in cold water. Cook with the 
celery in boiling water 2 hours, or until soft; drain and 
press through a sieve. To the pulp add the remaining 
ingredients. Cool the mixture, shape into a loaf, and 
bake. 

Dried lima beans or kidney beans may be substituted 
for lentils in this preparation. 

Experiment 166. Tabulation of Data. 

From data obtained in laboratory and from references 
given, list the vegetables used in the preceding lessons : 
(a) in the order of their fuel value; (b) in order of 
protein content. 

What is a meat substitute ? 



Laboratory Manual 87 



LEAVENED PREPARATIONS 

Experiment 167. White Sponge Cake. 
Review Experiment 47 (Omelet). 
Review Experiment 49 (Sponge Cake). 
Make a white sponge cake according to directions 
given below : 

1 measure of egg white ij measure of fine granu- 
1 measure freshly lated sugar 

sifted flour Flavoring, 6 drops for each 

J tsp cream of tartar for egg white used 

each egg white used 

Beat the egg to a stiff froth, adding the cream of tartar 

while beating. Add sugar gradually. Flavoring. Fold 

flour in. Avoid stirring. Bake at 150 C. for 30 minutes. 

Compare omelet and sponge cake as to means used 

for leavening. 

What ingredient is essential to this type of leavened 
preparations ? 

Experiment 168. Beaten Biscuit. 

I c flour Milk and water in equal 

i tbsp lard quantities 

J tsp salt 
Mix and sift flour and salt, work in lard, and moisten 
to a stiff dough. Toss on slightly floured board and beat 
20 minutes, continually folding over the dough. Roll 
^ inch in thickness, shape with round cutter, pierce with 
fork, and place on buttered tin. Bake 20 minutes in hot 
oven. 



88 Preparation of Food 

Explain the purpose of the special manipulation. 
Compare with Experiment 167. 

Experiment 169. Popovers. 

(a) 1 c flour 1 egg 

I c milk J tsp salt 

Mix ingredients thoroughly to smooth batter, but do 
not beat. Bake in muffin pans in a hot oven, with grad- 
ually increasing heat, 40 to 45 minutes. 

(b) Same as (a), but beat batter 5 minutes. 
Compare results. 

What is the leavening agent in popovers? In cream 
puffs? 

Experiment 170. Sources of Carbon Dioxide. 

Arrange apparatus according to the model set up. 
Determine the reaction and test products obtained from : 

1. Baking soda and cold water. 

2. Baking soda and hot water. 

3. Baking soda and sour milk. 

4. Baking soda and molasses. 

5. Baking soda and cream of tartar. 

6. Baking soda and acid calcium phosphate. 

7. Baking soda and fruit juice. 

8. Baking powder. 

9. Yeast. 

Write the equations for these reactions. What chem- 
ical product is common to all of them ? What can you say 
concerning the residue in each? Judging from these ex- 
periments, what are the essential constituents of a leaven- 
ing agent ? 



Laboratory Manual 89 

Experiment 171. Ginger Bread. 

1 c molasses 4 tbsp melted butter 

2| c flour 1 tsp soda 

I c boiling water 1 J tsp ginger 

\ tsp salt 
Sift dry ingredients. Add butter to other liquid in- 
gredients. Combine mixtures, beat thoroughly. Bake 
\ hour in moderate oven. Why use low temperature? 

Experiment 172. Steamed Brown Bread. 

1 c corn meal 1 c sour milk 

1 c bread crumbs \ c molasses 

\ tsp salt 1 tsp soda 

\ c seeded raisins 
If the crumbs are very dry, moisten them with cold 
water. Drain off the water and let them warm a few 
minutes in the oven. Dissolve soda in milk, add the other 
ingredients at once, and mix well. Steam 3 to 4 hours. 
The loaves may afterwards be dried off for a few minutes 
in the oven. 

Experiment 173. Plum Pudding. 

Modify above recipe to make plum pudding. Serve 
with one of the sauces given below. 

What are the means used for liberating the carbon 
dioxide in the last three preparations ? 

Experiment 174. Sauces, 
(a) Hard Sauce. 

^ c pulverized sugar -| c butter 
Flavoring 



go Preparation of Food 

Cream the butter. Add the sugar, blend thoroughly. 
Flavor. 

(b) Plain Sauce. 

I tbsp butter i c brown sugar 

i tbsp flour i c liquid 

Blend flour and butter, add hot water and sugar, and 
boil i minute. Serve hot. 

Which of these sauces would be suitable with a very 
rich pudding ? Why ? 

Experiment 175. Griddle Cakes. 

(a) i-J c flour ^ tsp salt 
1 c sour milk 1 egg 

f tsp soda 
Mix and sift dry ingredients. Beat egg and add with 
milk and butter. Beat batter thoroughly. Drop by spoon- 
fuls on a hot griddle. Turn each cake as soon as can be 
managed. Finish the cakes without turning a second 
time. 

(b) Cook a part of this batter in a heated waffle iron, 
noting added development of flavor. 

Experiment 176. Corn Meal Muffins. 

1 c thick sour milk 1 tbsp melted fat 

f c corn meal 1 tsp salt 

\ c flour 2 to f tsp soda (Why not 

1 tsp sugar give definite measure 

1 egg here?) 

Dissolve the soda in the milk. Add the meal and flour 
at once. (Why?) Stir till well mixed. Add the sugar, 



Laboratory Manual 91 

salt, and egg. Beat until the egg is thoroughly blended 
with the batter. Have the gem pans well greased and 
very hot. Fill two-thirds full and bake 10 to 15 minutes 
in hot oven. 

Vary these muffins by substituting Graham or entire 
wheat flour for the corn meal. 

What ingredients in the last two batters reacted with 
the soda ? 

Experiment 177. Griddle Cakes and Muffins — Sweet 
Milk. 
Make griddle cakes and muffins, using flour and 1 c 
sweet milk. What other change of ingredients will be 
necessary ? 



92 



Preparation of Food 



CAKES 

Experiment 178. Comparison of Cake Recipes. 

(a) Tabulate 6 recipes for cake as found in cook- 
books, according to the variation in the amount of fat 
used with 1 c of liquid, beginning with the recipe using 
the minimum quantity. 



Sugar 



Baking 
powder 



(&) Prepare cakes according to each recipe, using 
butter as the shortening. Compare cakes and determine 
most satisfactory proportions for foundation cake. 

(c) Make a cake by adding to this foundation recipe 
one other ingredient which will change the flavor and 
appearance without affecting the consistency. 

(d) Using different kinds of fats, prepare cakes 
according to the foundation recipe decided upon. 

Compare as to influence of fat used upon the texture, 
color, and flavor of the cake. 



Laboratory Manual 



93 



Which shortening produces a cake most nearly re- 
sembling the butter cake in flavor ? In texture ? 



Score card for cake 


Student's score 


General appearance — size and 




Lightness 15 

Crust — color, depth, and tex- 




Crumb — moisture, color, grain, 
and texture 30 

Flavor of cake itself 35 




Total 100 





Experiment 179. Cottage Pudding. 

Serve the first cake in the above series as a pudding, 
using one of the sauces given below. Compare this cake 
with muffin mixture. 



Experiment 180. Sauces, 
(a) Lemon Sauce. 
1 c sugar 

1 egg 

3 tbsp boiling water 

J c butter 
Cream butter and sugar, add beaten egg, lemon, and 
nutmeg. Beat for 5 minutes, add water gradually, set 
over boilinsr water. Serve hot. 



1 tsp nutmeg 

Juice of 1 lemon and -J the 
grated rind 



94 Preparation of Food 

(b) Golden Sauce. 

2 tbsp butter i c powdered sugar 

2 egg yolks 3 egg whites 

3 tbsp cream Flavoring 

Cream butter and sugar, add yolks beaten until lemon- 
colored and thick, then the cream. Carefully fold in the 
stiffly beaten whites. 

Compare cost of (a) and (b). 

What is the general purpose of a sauce ? 

Name sauces which carry a flavor complementary to 
that of the dish. 

Name others in which there is a contrast in flavor. 

Experiment 181. Comparison of Baking Powders. 

(a) Examine different types of baking powders 
provided. 

Group according to constituents as stated on the labels. 
What constituent is common to all baking powders ? 

(b) Place \ tsp of each baking powder into a test 
tube. 

Test as follows: Add cold water to each, noting 
strength of effervescence. When action has ceased, heat 
the solution slowly. Result? 

Do these reactions give any indication as to the amount 
of available carbon dioxide, or as to the action of heat 
in developing it? 

Test each solution with litmus. 

Theoretically, what should the reaction be at this 
point ? 



Laboratory Manual 95 

Experiment 182. Baking Powder Biscuit. 

Test these powders in the making of baking powder 
biscuit according to directions given below : 

2 c flour 4 tsp baking powder 

1 tsp salt 2 tbsp butter, lard, or suet 

f to 1 c milk or water 

Mix the dry ingredients ; rub the butter in thoroughly, 
then add the milk gradually, stirring with a spoon until 
a soft, smooth dough is formed which can be stirred free 
from the side of the mixing bowl. Turn out on the board, 
using flour to prevent sticking. (Avoid leaving dry flour 
upon the surface of the biscuit.) Roll to about f inch in 
thickness, cut with a rather small cutter. Bake 5 to 8 min- 
utes. ( Temperature ? ) 

Modify the recipe given for biscuits until the prepara- 
tion will be suitable for meat pies, shortcake, or scones. 

What deductions can be drawn from these experi- 
ments as to the desirability of the different types of 
baking powder? 

Record number of biscuits and cost of first recipe. 



g6 Preparation of Food 



YEAST, FLOUR, AND BREAD 

References: 

Grant. Chemistry of Bread Making. 

Simmons. Book of Bread. 

Jago. Technology of Bread Making. 

Osborne. The Proteins of the Wheat Kernel. 

Kansas State Bulletins, Nos. 190 and 202. 

Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 

Vol. 7, pp. 283-285. Contributions of Chemistry to 

the Flour Industry. 
University of Illinois, Household Science Department, 

Bulletin No. 25. 
Goodfellow, John. Dietetic Value of Bread. 
Leach. Pp. 244-254. 

Hutchison. Food and the Principles of Dietetics, Chap- 
ter XL 
Bulletin 13, pt. 9, Bureau of Chemistry. Foods and 

Food Adulterants : Cereals and Cereal Products. 
Farmers' Bulletin 112. Bread and the Principles of 

Breadmaking. 
Farmers' Bulletin 534. Durum Wheat. 
Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletins 52, 67, 85, 

101, 126, 143, 156. 
Bulletin 82, South Dakota Experiment Station. 

Experiment 183. Study of Yeast. 

(a) Examine active yeast plant under the microscope. 
Note reproduction by cell division. Make drawings. 



Laboratory Manual 97 

(b) Influence of temperature. 

Blend one yeast cake thoroughly in a pint of water to 
which has been added 1 tbsp of sugar. 

(1) Freeze a portion of the mixture, then allow to 
thaw at room temperature. 

(2) Boil another portion and cool to room tempera- 
ture. 

( 3 ) Take a third portion at room temperature. 

(4) Chill a fourth portion. 

Fill bottles from each of the above and invert them on 
plates. Keep (1), (2), and (3) at 32 to 37 C. and (4) 
packed in ice during the remainder of the laboratory 
period. Explain results observed. 

(c) Influence of different media. 

Observe action of yeast with different media as given 
below, using -J yeast cake in each case. 

(1) Water. 

(2) Water and flour ( 1 tsp flour to £ c of water) . 

(3) Water and scalded flour. 

(4) Water and starch. 

(5) Water and sugar (proportions as in (b)). 

(6) Milk and flour (proportions as in (2)). 

(7) Potato water. 
Draw conclusions. 

Experiment 184. Comparison of Flours. 

(a) Examine Graham, whole wheat, and white flour. 
Sift and examine residue. 



98 Preparation of Food 

(b) Compare, hard, soft, and pastry flours as to: 

(1) Color. 

(2) Texture. 

(3) Cohesion — press in hand. 

(4) Composition (experiment). 

Experiment 185. Composition. 

(a) Make dough of same consistency with each kind 
of flour, using ^ c of flour and measuring carefully the 
amount of water used in each case. Let stand for 20 min- 
utes. Why ? 

(b) Tie the dough in a piece of cheesecloth and wash 
by kneading for 3 minutes in J c of water. Test this water 
for sugar and starch. 

Take fresh water and continue the washing until the 
wash water gives no test for starch. What is the residue 
upon the cloth ? Form into a ball and bake. What char- 
acteristic of protein is shown? Compare and draw con- 
clusions. 

Experiment 186. Short Process Bread. 

\ cake compressed 1 c water, or equal quanti- 

yeast ties milk and water 

2 tsp sugar 1 tsp salt 

1 tsp butter 3 J to 4 c flour 

Have the liquid lukewarm (about 35 ° C). Break the 
yeast cake into J of it and blend thoroughly. Pour re- 
mainder of water over the salt, butter, and sugar in the 
mixing bowl, add the yeast, stir in the flour, then place on 
the board and knead until smooth and elastic to the touch. 



Laboratory Manual 99 

Place in the bowl and set in a warm place (35 ° C.) and 
let rise until double its original bulk. Shape into a loaf, 
place in a bread pan and again let rise at same temperature 
until double its bulk. Put into oven at 210 to 220 ° C. 
When bread has begun to brown, reduce the temperature 
gradually to 190 C. and bake 45 minutes to 1 hour. 

When baked remove loaf from the pan at once and cool 
on a rack to allow for a free circulation of air. 

Note the inner temperature of the loaf when removed 
from the oven. 

Experiment 187. Long Process Bread, 
i cake dry yeast 2 tsp sugar 

1 tsp butter 1 c water 

1 tsp salt 3 to 4 c flour 

Soak the yeast in the warmed water until softened. 
Place the sugar, salt, and butter in a bowl. Add the warm 
water, yeast, and about one-half of the flour. Beat smooth 
and let rise over night. 

In the morning knead the remainder of the flour into 
the light sponge, making a smooth and elastic dough. 
Complete same as "short process" bread, with the excep- 
tion of letting it rise twice in pan. 

Judge the bread made by the score card. 



ioo Preparation of Food 

Score Card for Bread 

General Appearance 20 

Size (5) 
Shape (5) 
Crust ( 10) 
Color 
Character 
Depth 

Fla vor 35 

Odor 
Taste 

Lightness 15 

Crumb 30 

. Character (20) 
Coarse — fine 



Texture 



Tough — tender 

Moist — dry 

Elastic or not 
Color (5) 
Grain — Distribution of gas (5) 

Total 100 

Experiment 188. Rolls. 

(Satisfactory rolls may be made directly from bread 
dough or various ingredients may be added.) 

Use the proportions given for bread, but modify the 
ingredients and manipulation to make Parker House rolls, 
cinnamon rolls, coffee cake. 



Laboratory Manual 101 

Experiment 189. Bread Sticks. 

When it is desirable to have a bread with a large pro- 
portion of crust, a dough prepared as for rolls may be 
baked in bread stick pans or merely formed into long, 
slender rolls and arranged in an ordinary pan, giving 
room for them to rise without touching each other. 

Experiment 190. Zwieback. 

When bread dough is ready for the last rising form 
into small rolls long enough to reach across a narrow 
bread pan. Crowd them together in order to have them 
rise in rather thin sections. When very light, bake 40 to 
50 minutes. Remove from the pan, let stand a few min- 
utes, then separate the sections carefully. Lay them in a 
shallow pan and rebake until the sides are a delicate brown. 

Experiment 191. Entire Wheat or Graham Bread. 

Using the proportions given for short process bread, 
make a stiff dough with entire wheat or Graham flour. 
Form into loaves at once. Bake as soon as thoroughly 
light. 

If dry yeast must be used, prepare sponge as for long 
process bread and finish with but one rising. 

What flavor is to be conserved in entire wheat or Gra- 
ham flour preparations? 

Experiment 192. Practice Luncheon. 

From the food material furnished prepare a four- 
course luncheon for one person and serve. 



102 



Preparation of Food 



Materials furnished 



Remarks. — Note seasonings or other extra materials obtained 
from supply table. 



Laboratory Manual 103 



MEALS 

References: 

Allen, Lucy G. Table Service. 

Hill, Janet M. Up-to-date Waitress. 

Hill, Janet M. Practical Cooking and Serving, Part III, 
Chapter VI. 

Farmer, Fannie M. Boston Cooking School Cook Book, 
Chapter XXXVIII. 

Springsteed, Anne F. Expert Waitress. 

Larned, Linda Hull. Hostess of Today. 

University of Illinois Bulletins, Department of House- 
hold Science. No. 32, Some Points to be considered 
in the Planning of a Rational Diet. No. 30, The 
Planning of Meals. No. 34, The Service of Meals. 

Experiment 193. Practice Meals. 

Using the maximum and minimum sums of money 
allowed, make out menus and market lists for breakfast, 
luncheon, and dinner to be served to 6 persons. 

Revise these memoranda in consultation with the in- 
structor. 

Prepare and serve the meals in cooperation with the 
other members of the class, devoting one laboratory period 
to each. 

Make out a report in the following form : 



104 



Preparation of Food 



Cost of 
amount 
prepared 



Value of 
left-over 



Cost of 
amount 
served 



Fuel 

value 



Total cost of meal . . . . 
Number of persons served 
Cost per person 



Laboratory Manual 105 

JUDGING OF MEALS 

Use the following scheme for judging meals, deter- 
mining the percentage value to be given to each point: 

Dining room. 
Lighting. 
Ventilation. 
Temperature. 
Furnishings. 
Color scheme. 

Table. 
Size. 
Shape. 

Location in room. 
Condition of appointments. 
Arrangement of covers. 
Decorations. 
Color scheme. 

Food. 

Quality of materials chosen. 
Suitability to occasion. 
Amount. 
Variety. 

In selection. 

In methods of preparation. 
Combination of flavor. 
Combination of color. 
Flavor, temperature, and consistency of each dish. 



106 Preparation of Food 

Service. 
Orderly. 
Neat. 
Easy. 
Quiet. 
Prompt. 
Alert. 

Factors of cost. 

What reasonable limits should be set to : 
Number of courses ? 
Amount of china and silver? 
Amount of decoration ? 

What reasons may be assigned for the commonly 
accepted rules of service? 



INDEX 



Acids in leavening agents, 8£ 
Alcohol, 9 

Bacon, 46 

Baking powder, composition 
94 

study of, 94 
Beans, baked, 85 

canning of, 101 

Lima, 85 

navy, 85 
Beef, cooking of, 32 

corned, 45 

cuts of, 30 

dried, 46 

effect of heat on, 32 

flavor, 31 

Hamburg steak, 36 

loaf, 36 

pot roast, 36 

roast, 34 

steak, 33 

structure, 30 

Swiss steak, 36 
Beets, 82 
Biscuit, baking powder, 95 

beaten, 87 
Bread, brown, 89 

corn muffins, 90 

entire wheat, 101 

Graham, 101 

judging of, 100 

long process, 99 

rolls, 100 

score card, 100 

short process, 98 

zwieback, 101 
Bread sticks, 101 
Butter, 18 
Buttermilk, 18 

Cabbage, escaloped, 83 
Cake, fats in, 92 

gingerbread, judging of, 93 



1 Cake, sponge, white, 87 

sponge, yellow, 26 

tabulation of recipes for, 92 
Candy, chocolate creams, 68 
of, cream mints, 67 

fondant, 67 

glace nuts, 68 

peanut brittle, 68 
Canned goods, commercial, 62 

cost of, 62 

laboratory, 62 
Canning, beans, 58 

corn, 58 

peaches, 56 

tomatoes, 57 

tomato juice, 57 
Carbohydrates, chemical reac- 
tion, 63 

properties of, 63 

types of, 63 

starch, 69 

sucrose, 65 
Carbon dioxide, sources of, 88 
Carrots, 82 
Catsup, tomato, 59 
Cauliflower, 83 
Cereals, bulk of, 72 

comparison, 76 

cooking of, 72 

cost, 72 

food value of, 77 

tabulation of, 76 
Cheese, effect of heat on, 21 

source of, 20 
Cheese balls, 51 

sandwiches, 21 

souffle, 26 

wafers, 21 
Chicken, 40 

cuts of, 40 

en casserole, 41 

jellied, 41 

roast, 40 

sauted, 40 
107 



io8 



Index 



Chocolate, 28 

creams, 68 

preparation of, 28 

spotting of, 68 
Clarifying fat, 51 
Coal, 8 
Cocoa, 28 

Codfish, creamed, 46 
Coffee, 15 
Corn bread (see corn muffins, 

90) 
Corn, canning of, 58 
Corned beef, 45 
Cornstarch pudding, 70, 71 
Cream, 18, 19 

mousse, 18 

specific gravity of, 17 

whipped, 18 
Croquettes, frying of, 51 

potato, 81 

rice, 74 

salmon, 51 

sweet potato, 81 
Cured fish, 45 
Cured meat, 45 
Custards, 27 

baked, 27 

soft, 27 



Fats and oils, clarifying, 51 

effect of heat on, 49 

frying, 50 

rendering of, 49 
Fig tapioca, 71 
Fireless cooker, 8, 11 
Fish, baked, 42 

boiled, 42 

cooking of, 42 

salt, 45 

sauted, 43 

shell-fish, 43 

stuffing, 43 

structure, 42 
Flour, comparison, 98 

composition of, 98 

entire wheat, 97 

Graham, 97 

hard, 98 

pastry, 98 

soft, 98 
Fondant, 67 
Freezing mixtures, 12 
Fruit, butter, 61 

canning of, 56 

dried, 14, 61 

jars, 56 
Frying, 50 



Dampers, 8 
Demonstration, 54 
Dishwashing, 13 
Doughnuts, 50 
Dried beef, 46 
Dried fruit, 14 

Eggs, 22 

composition of, 23 
effect of heat on, 23 
freshness of, 22 
hard cooked, 25 
keeping of, 22 
omelets, 25 
poached, 24 
scrambled, 25 
structure, 22 
'weight of, 23 

Electricity, 9 

Equipment, 7 



Gas, 8, 9 

cost, 8 
Gas meter, 8 
Gelatin, commercial, 47 

properties of, 47 

sources of, 31 
Gingerbread, 89 
Grape juice, 58 
Griddle cakes, 90, 91 

Ham, boiled, 45 
broiled, 46 

Ice, lemon, 12 
Iodine test, 64 

Jelly, crabapple, 60 
grape, 60 
pectin, 60 



Index 



109 



Kitchen, 7 
dimensions, 7 
equipment, 7 
finish, 7 

Lamb, 38 

chops, 38 

leg of, 39 
Leavened preparations, 87 
Leavening agents, acids in, 88 

baking powder, 94 

soda, 88 

yeast, 96 
Left-overs, 46 
Lemonade, 14 
Lemon ice, 14 
Lemon filling, 53 

sauce, 93 
Lentil loaf, 86 

Macaroni, escaloped, 72 
Marmalade, orange, 60 
Meals, cost of, 104 

judging of, 105 

practice, 103 

practice luncheon, 101 

serving, 106 
Measures, 9 
Meat (see Beef, Mutton, Pork, 

and Veal) 
Milk, clabbered, 20 

clotted, 20 

composition, 19 

pasteurized, 19 

specific gravity, 17 
Mousse, 18 
Mutton, 38 
Muffins, 90, 91 

corn meal, 90 

Nuts, glace, 68 

Oleomargarine, test for, 49 
Omelet, 25 

foamy, 25 

French, 26 
Onions, boiled, 83 

creamed, 83 



Oysters, 44 
sauted, 44 
stewed, 44 

Parsnips, 82 

Pastry, 52 

Peaches, canning, 56 

Peanut brittle, 68 

Pectin, 60 

Pickles, cucumber, 59 

sweet, 59 
Pie crust, 52 

manipulation of, 52 
Popovers, 88 
Pork, 38 

chops, 38 

roast, 39 

sausage, 39 
Potato, boiled, 80 

comparison with rice, 80 

composition, 78 

cooking, 79 

creamed, 81 

croquettes, 81 

losses in cooking, 79 

mashed, 81 

preparation of, 78 

stuffed, 82 

sweet, steamed, 82 
Preservation of food, 55 
Preservatives, drying, 56, 61 

salt, 45, 56 

spices, 59 

sugar, 60 

vinegar, 59 
Puddings, cornstarch, 70, 71 

cottage, 93 

plum, 89 

rice, 74 

snow, 71 

tapioca, 71 

Range, 8 

dampers, 8 
Rarebit, 27 

French, 27 

Welsh, 27 
Refrigerator, 8 
Rendering of fat, 49 



Index 



Rice, compared with potato, 80 

cooking of, 73 

croquettes, 74 

escaloped with cheese, 74 
with tomato, 74 

pudding, 74 

Spanish, 75 
Rolls, 100 

Salads, 54 

Salad dressing, French, 53 

Mayonnaise, 53 
Salmon croquettes, 51 
Saratoga potatoes, 51 
Sauces, egg, 45 

golden, 94 

hard, 89 

Hollandaise, 43 

lemon, 93 

plain, 90 

white, 70 
Shortening, 52 
Soda, 88 
Soup stock, 37 
Spaghetti, 72 
Spinach, 84 
Starch, cooking of, 69 

effect of heat on, 69 

solubility, 69 

sources, 69 

structure, 69 
Steak, 33 

broiled, 33 

cost, 33 

Hamburg, 36 

Swiss, 36 
Stews, 37 

brown, 37 

vegetable, 85 
Stoves, 7 
Sucrose, crystallization of, 65 

effect of heat on, 66 

inversion, 65. (See Fondant, 
67) 

solubility, 6$ 



Sugar, beet, 61 

cane, 61 

invert, 65, 67 

sweetening power of, 65 
Sweet pickle, 59 
Sweet potato croquettes, 81 

steamed, 82 
Sirup, table, 66 

Tea, 16 
Temperatures, 10 

cooking, ii 

of food, 10 

of frying fat, 50 

oven, 11 
Tomato, canning of, 57 

catsup, 59 

juice, 57 

soup, 71 
Turnips, 83 

Veal, 38 

cutlets, 38 

jellied, 39 
Vegetables, canned, 84 

composition, 78 

freshening, 14 

green, 14, 82, 83, 84 

influence of salt on, 79 

structure, 78 

tabulation of, 86 

uncooked, 84 
Vegetable stew, 85 

Water, 13 
Weights, 10 
White sauce, 70 
Wood, 8 

Yeast, effect of food, 97 
effect of temperature, 97 
study of, 96 

Zwieback, 101 



